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Item Open Access An investigation into the implementation of the National Policy on District Support Services for effective teaching and learning at school level(2005) Masipa, Mokgadi Maggie; Bayona, E. L. M.This study examines the extent to which education districts in the Limpopo Province support effective teaching and learning at school level, with general applicability to similar education districts in South Africa and elsewhere. The literature reveals that education districts in most developing countries, do not support the participation of principals and educators, and that changes are required to effect higher levels of involvement. The study focuses on how this might be attained. The study makes recommendations on District Support Services which will ensure the involvement of district personnel, principals and educators in transforming schools into effective teaching and learning organisations. The theoretical base is derived from literature review on district support services in South Africa and elsewhere. This review is used to establish common conceptions for the study, and illustrates the extent to which the involvement of all relevant stakeholders is considered desirable and feasible. The analysis also reveals how the policy on district support services in South Africa falls short of complying with the country's local diversity and also with its policy of Outcomes - Based Eduaction which focuses on producing citizens who are equipped with values, knowledge and skills that will enable them to play a productive role in society. The implication of Outcomes - Based Eduaction is that individuals acquire these qualities through active involvement in the learning process. It seeks to create a lifelong learner who is confident and independent, literate and multi-skilled, compassionate, with respect for the environment and the ability to participate in society as a critical and active citizen. The field work was carried out in education institutions falling under Sekgosese Education District in Region Three of Limpopo Province and involved a sample of three hundred and thirty-two education practictioners, divided into five target groups:educators (200), principals (100), circuit managers (4), curriculum advisers (16), and administrators (12). The analysis of the data is composed of three parts. The first concerns the calibre of people who are implementing the policy. The majority of participants still lacked the relevant qualifications required while the need for staff development was identified by many as a major concern. In the second part respondents overwhelmingly indicated the need for clarification on the nature, the role and functions of the education district. In the third part the report shows thata general agreement also exists amongst the respondents for the need to address the constraints experienced at all levels in the implementation of district support services. The study concludes that in a globally competitive environment like the one we have today, it is no longer sufficient to make excellent strategic and operational plans. It is rather crucial for organisations to have systems that will ensure that this plans are effectively achieved. The rationale for this view is based on the argument that this may provide opportunities for learners to extend and develop their personal education competence, critical awareness and shared insight of the role which they and schools are expected to fulfil in their rapidly changing communities. The following key concepts were used throughout the study: • Education District • Curriculum 2005-08-24 Education Policy Reserve Fund Programme (EPRFP) • The School Governing Body (SGB) • National Policy • District Support Services • Effective Teaching and LearningItem Open Access An evaluation of the level of awareness about occupational health and safety practices among workers at University of Venda(2012) Nkuna, Thokho; Akinsola, H. A.; Tugli. A. K.Occupational hazards cause or contribute to the premature death of millions of people worldwide and results in the ill health or disablement of hundreds of millions more each year. World Health Organisation reports, indicated that occupational risk factors account globally for a number of morbidity conditions, including 37% of back pains, 16% of hearing loss, 13% of chronic obstructive lungs disease, 11% of asthma, 10% of injuries and 9% of lung cancer. According to the report, mortality is also due to work related injuries causing nearly 310,000 deaths each year and nearly 146,000 deaths are attributable to work related carcinogens (WHO, 2005). The purpose of this study was to evaluate the level of awareness about occupational health and safety practices among University of Venda workers. The study employed a cross sectional descriptive design. A questionnaire was used to collect data. The study population was all the workers who were more at risk of occupational health hazards on daily basis than others from the following departments: Ground I horticulture, Technical services, Protection and cleaning services. The questionnaire was self - administered and the data was analysed descriptively using the SPSS (Statistical Programme for Social Sciences). The results of the study revealed that the level of awareness about occupational health and safety was poor based on the following findings: 46 (3.7%) never heard about Occupational Health and Safety Act before, while 37 (30.3%) heard about OHS Act from their previous jobs. Forty nine percent revealed that there is no OHS in the premises, while 65 (53.3%) revealed that there have no representatives in the Occupational Health and Safety Committee. Furthermore, 57 (46.72%) knew nothing about the role of safety representatives. It was recommended that the University should create awareness among the workers by establishing health and safety education programmes.Item Embargo Exploring leadership competencies of sector management service of the South African Public Service(2025-05-16) Maimela, Khuliso Kenny; Mafunisa, John; Matshabaphala, J.; Munzhedzi, P. H.This study aims to explore the literature on leadership competencies of the Senior Management Service (SMS) of the South African public service by incorporating international best practices from selected countries. The thesis focused on the challenges confronting members of the South African SMS and also on the regulatory frameworks underpinning leadership development in the South African public service. The study also focused on the leadership theories and leadership styles underpinning leadership competencies in the public service. The research determined whether it is possible to align the agile leadership model to the public service leadership competency model. To address the main aim of the study and the underlying research problem, a non-empirical approach was adopted. This research adopted a qualitative research method using scholarly literature. The post-positivist research paradigm was utilised. The findings of the study are that the competencies identified in the SMS Competency Framework (CF) do not adequately prepare public servants to perform their duties effectively in the networked governance context, that SMS members are failing to attend training due to operational requirements, that competency assessments results are not made available to SMS members, that assessment results are not a consideration when deciding on the appointment of a candidate, that departments experience financial constraints for financing the resources needed to implement CFs and that coaching and mentorship in the public service is not yet formalised. The study recommends that the directive on the implementation of competency based assessments for members of the Senior Management Service (SMS) in the public service, as amended (Minister for the public service and administration, in terms of chapter 4, part II (D) and chapter 4, part IV of the public service Regulations, 2001) be reviewed and, assessment results to be a consideration when making appointment decision for SMS posts, departments to partner with Public Sector Education and Training Authority (PSETA) to solicit financial support for SMS training/development where appropriate budget should be reserved specifically for competency related training interventions, introduce stringent measures to stop training budgets from being shifted to other needs should be introduced, departments to formalise senior management mentorship programme in order to address the identified competency gaps and departments to use online leadership programmes offered by the National School of Government (NSG) and other training institutions. For researchers, the findings can add to leadership competency theories, especially in the public service. For policymakers, the findings can form a solid foundation that they can rely on to work out public policies for leadership development in the South African public service. For Public Administration, the findings will contribute to the development of the body of knowledge of the discipline of Public Administration. Further studies are recommended towards understanding the challenges confronting SMS members in the implementation of competency frameworks, and the determination of the effectiveness of competency frameworks. The study is limited to SMS members in the South African public service.Item Embargo Reconfiguration of accountability in developmental local government: A case of City of Johannesburg Metropolitan Municipality(2025-05-16) Mawela, Ndivhaisafhi; Mahole, E.; Munzhedzi, P. H.Accountability denotes answers to be provided for actions taken by those in power. It is crucial to ensure that decisions taken are lawful and best represent the community at large. The failure to effectively implement accountability has negatively impacted developmental local government. The reports by oversight bodies have demonstrated the lack of accountability within developmental local government, which has cemented a way to increase mismanagement. This study focuses on the redesigning of accountability in developmental local government in the City of Johannesburg Metropolitan Municipality, Gauteng Province. A pragmatic research approach was followed where mixed method research was adopted, as it permitted to cover issues in greater depth. The study was descriptive in nature. The sample methods were purposively drawn from the identified population. Interviews and questionnaires were utilised as instruments for collecting data. Collected data was analysed utilising both statistical and thematic techniques. The Principal-Agent Theory was selected as the theory that underpins the study. The key findings of the study are the ineffectiveness of current mechanisms for accountability, the cadre deployment policy being identified as one of the hindering elements of accountability, the lack of consequence management and the inadequate protection of whistle-blowers. The study recommends revising the current mechanisms for accountability, especially those for performance assessment, which plays a critical role in promoting performance accountability. The study also recommends that the cadre deployment policy be adjusted to ensure that the deployment only speaks to members who have formal qualifications relevant to the deployed portfolio. There is a need for a consultative approach with the private sector to determine how and why accountability in that environment is effective. The study further developed a framework as a means to reconfigure accountability, wherein various role players who enforce accountability should display strong stewardship.Item Embargo Sustainability of South African Hpmestays: an integrated approach for Tourism and Hospitality Development(2025-05-16) Nethengwe, Tondani; Dafuleya, G.; Mokabe, M.This study aimed to develop a framework for enhancing the sustainability of homestays in South Africa, addressing the lack of standardized quality control and certification programs. This absence leads to inconsistent service quality, making it difficult for tourists to set clear expectations. The research assessed the current state of homestays by profiling various types through online surveys, including web pages and social media platforms like Facebook. A case study approach was used to evaluate the economic, environmental, and social factors influencing homestay sustainability. Six homestays (two per province—urban and rural) across three provinces (Limpopo, Mpumalanga, and KwaZulu-Natal) were selected for in-depth interviews. Surveys were conducted with 120 households near each homestay to examine local community perceptions. The findings revealed the need for government intervention to establish clear policies for regulating homestay standards. This would address inconsistencies and improve service quality and sustainability. The study also emphasized the importance of adopting responsible environmental practices, such as solar energy, sustainable water management, and better waste disposal systems, to mitigate long-term environmental damage. It recommended training programs to encourage sustainable tourism practices among homestay operators. The research further identified the vulnerability of homestays to climate change, particularly in rural, ecologically sensitive areas. Strategies to enhance climate resilience, such as eco-friendly infrastructure and disaster preparedness, were suggested. Additionally, technological challenges were identified, particularly in rural areas where limited access to digital platforms restricts marketing efforts. The study recommended capacity-building initiatives to improve the visibility and profitability of homestays through digital marketing and online platforms. Regarding community perceptions, the study found that local communities generally viewed homestays positively, with no major social or economic changes observed. However, the study suggests further research, including structured surveys targeting various community groups, to assess the broader impacts of homestays on the economy, society, and environment.Item Embargo Developing guidelines for the protection of indigeneous knowledge under agreement establishing the African Continental Free Trade Area(2025-05-16) Mukwevho, Tshimangadzo Donald; Ndlovu, L.; Oriakhogba, D. O.This study examines the efficacy of protecting indigenous knowledge within the context of the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) Agreement. It examines the efforts aimed at establishing a robust legal and policy framework within the AfCFTA to foster African economic development. Although the Protocol to the Agreement Establishing the African Continental Free Trade Area on Intellectual Property Rights (IP Protocol) has been adopted, there is yet to be an annex on indigenous knowledge, traditional cultural expressions, and genetic resources. Therefore, this study proposes guidelines and a structured framework to guide the development of this annex. As a desktop (doctrinal) research, this study examines international, regional, and national legal frameworks, best practices, case law, and academic literature on the protection of indigenous knowledge. Grounded in a combined biopiracy, IP, and, free, prior, and informed consent (FPIC) conceptual framework, this study develops an "Integrated Indigenous Knowledge Protection Theory," which justifies the adaptation of the conventional IP regimes and developing a sui generis regime for indigenous knowledge protection. This approach encapsulates the incorporation of the IP regime, indigenous peoples’ rights, customary rules, and administrative and institutional framework for protecting indigenous knowledge. To achieve the study objectives, the thesis explores the propriety of using trade agreements, particularly the AfCFTA Agreement, to protect indigenous knowledge. It then examines the approaches adopted in existing international and national legal, policy and practices on the protection of indigenous knowledge. From this, the study proposes useful guidelines and effective structure for the Annex to the IP Protocol. Ultimately, this study advances the argument that a comprehensive framework that balances the economic exploitation of indigenous knowledge and the associated resources, with the rights indigenous people/communities have over these resources will effectively guide policy and lawmakers towards developing a framework that will ensure the protection of indigenous knowledge for the actualisation of the objectives of the AfCFTA Agreement.Item Embargo Impacts of seasonal dynamics on cyanobacterial proliferation and cyanotoxins bioaccumulation in fish species: Comparative study of aquaculture fishponds in Nigeria and South Africa(2025-05-16) Bassey, Odo Jones; Gumbo, Jabulani; Mujuru, M.; Dondofema, F.Aquaculture production plays a pivotal role in advancing Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly those focused on food security, economic growth, livelihoods, sustainable production, biodiversity conservation, and improved nutrition. Locally produced fish from aquaculture ponds serve as an affordable and accessible protein source in countries like Nigeria and South Africa. However, the rise of cyanobacterial harmful algal blooms (CyanoHABs) poses a serious challenge to the sustainability of fish culture production and human health. In the aquaculture ecosystem, the consequences of these blooms have triggered widespread interest due to cyanotoxin bioaccumulation in cultured fish species. In tropical regions, especially in Africa, there is a paucity of research investigating the temporal drivers of cyanobacterial biomass in aquaculture fishponds. Cyanobacteria are integral to the pond food chain, yet their seasonal dynamics factors and influencing factors remain poorly understood. This knowledge gap is particularly critical as these factors significantly impact aquaculture productivity and the risks associated with cyanobacterial blooms. Therefore, this study investigated the impact of seasonal dynamics on cyanobacterial proliferation and cyanotoxin bioaccumulation in cultured fish. A comparative study design between small-scale commercial fishponds located in Nigeria (NGA) and South Africa was employed in this study. A total of six fishponds located in Calabar Municipality, Cross River State, Nigeria, and Duthuni, Vhembe District, Limpopo Province, South Africa (SA), were selected. Water and Clarias gariepinus (African catfish) samples were collected from each fishpond at seasonal intervals (SA - summer, winter, NGA - dry and wet seasons). Seasonal variations in water quality parameters were observed in NGA and SA fishponds. Cyanotoxins analysis was carried out using the Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (LCMS). The results of the study revealed that elevated temperatures (>20°C) were consistent during dry, wet, and summer seasons, with a notable winter decrease (16.5°C) at Duthuni, South Africa. Dissolved oxygen (DO) and electrical conductivity (EC) levels were consistently low across seasons, while total dissolved solids (TDS) peaked during winter in South Africa (125–193.2 mg/L) and were lower in Nigeria (15.9–37.7 mg/L). Nutrients, particularly nitrite and nitrate, peaked in Nigeria during wet (10.42 mg/L) and dry (6.45 mg/L) seasons, while South African fishponds exhibited lower concentrations in both summer and winter. The study revealed that cyanobacterial biomass and cyanotoxins in fishponds were not driven by seasonal factors like warmer temperatures or precipitation. Cyanobacteria biomass was predominantly influenced by management practices, including feeding, fertilization, nutrient levels, water volume, stocking density, water exchange, and retention time. The LCMS analysis revealed that the microcystin variant MC-RR was absent in fish tissue, while MC-YR was detected in the intestines, gills, muscles, and liver. The highest concentration of 20.9 μg/g was found in the liver. Additionally, untargeted LC-MS identified a broader range of cyanotoxins, including aeruginosins, anabaenopeptins, microcystins, and microginins, in the water samples and fish tissue. These findings underscore the critical influence of fishpond management practices on cyanobacterial dynamics and cyanotoxin bioaccumulation. This study highlights the need for targeted interventions to mitigate cyanotoxins risks in aquaculture systems. Understanding and addressing these factors are essential for ensuring the sustainability of aquaculture production and safeguarding public health in tropical regions.Item Embargo Investigating the effects of aridity and its impacts on water resources availability in the Luvuvhu River Catchment(2025-06-16) Nkuna, Tinyiko Rivers; Makungo, R.The study investigated aridity and its impacts on water resource availability in the Luvuvhu River Catchment (LRC). Hydrological information indicates gradual changes towards more arid conditions in the LRC. The shift towards aridity has impacted negatively on water resources availability. Aridity indices for the LRC were determined using both meteorological and hydrological data. The 5-year or 10-year rainfall or streamflow averages were used to detect drought thresholds, except during flood events. A significant study was done on drought conditions using Standardised Precipitation Index (SPI), Standardised Precipitation-Evapotranspiration (SPEI) and Standardised Streamflow Index (SDI). The study hypothesised increased inter-station variations (spatial and temporal) observable from 5-year or 10-year rainfall or streamflow averages over a historical hydrological period. The study used rainfall and temperature data from the Agricultural Research Council (ARC) and South African Weather Service (SAWS) spanning 58 years (1961 - 2018). National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) data with a resolution of 10 km was used to determine historical and future aridity in the LRC. The spatiotemporal variations and trends of aridity are reflected in the availability and distribution of water resources. The study developed the aridity indices using United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Aridity Index (AI) to determine the spatiotemporal variability of water resources in the LRC. The variations and trends of aridity indices were determined using the coefficient of variation and Mann Kendall test, respectively. Due to a limited number of weather stations in the study area, the Kriging method was used to interpolate aridity indices for areas with no stations. The temporal changes of the 5-year or 10-year cycles of hydrological data analyses show progressive, gradual increases linked to global environmental changes such as global warming. The Hierarchical clustering (HC) analysis revealed the presence of two factors that account for 59.7% and 39.3% of the variability in rainfall within the LRC. The results show that upstream of the catchment experiences more rainfall and lower temperatures than downstream. The increase in temperature and decrease in rainfall might negatively impact the availability of water resources for downstream users. Thus, more arid conditions are experienced downstream of the catchment than upstream. Flood events have become rare and more intense, a characteristic associated with areas prone to droughts. The results of the study reveal significant year-to-year variability in floods and drought events. The increase in aridity should be considered when allocating water resources and implementing sustainable water resources management in the LRC. Thus, the study provides a baseline for monitoring and modelling hydrological processes in arid environments.Item Embargo Evaluation of public participation process in environmental impact assessments of selected development projects in the Vhembe District of South Africa(2025-05-16) Magosha, Tendani Amos; Nethengwe, N. S.; Mudau, N. V.Ensuring a pragmatic balance between environmental imperatives and community development within Vhembe district in South Africa has been a growing concern since communities’ right to an environment that sustains their wellbeing is being infringed due to ecologically unsustainable development activities carried out in the area. In the wake of this, this research study evaluated the extent to which Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) of development projects in Vhembe district complied with public participation as stipulated by EIA policy guidelines and goals provided within EIA legislation in South Africa. The objectives of the study were: to evaluate the level of awareness of guidelines for public participation by the community; to assess the extent to which Environmental Assessment Practitioners (EAPs) have complied with guidelines for public participation in EIA legislations; and to assess public participation practice by EAPs in relation to community expectations in Vhembe district. This study relied mainly on qualitative method of data collection and analysis supplemented by quantitative method. In order to achieve the main aim of this research, a case study was used. Simple random sampling method was done on development projects that required EIA due to their potential to cause irreversible harm to the Earth’s systems thus undermine sustainable development. These development projects were sampled from the four local municipalities within Vhembe district. Systematic sampling was used to identify respondents to whom questionnaires were administered. Interviews were conducted with twelve key informants and also with four EAPs who conducted EIAs for the sampled development projects. The reviewed documents for the development projects included Basic Assessment Reports (BARs); and Scoping and Environmental Impact Report (S&EIR). For data analysis, Statistical Packages for the Social Sciences (SPSS) was used. The results revealed that community members are generally not conversant with EIA guidelines for public participation. Furthermore, it was revealed that EAPs only complied with some of the minimum requirements of EIA procedure. Also notable is that EAPs displayed lack of requisite expertise on how to conduct public participation and as a result infringed on the public’s right to access information by making projects’ information only available in libraries and websites. Key recommendation is that public participation should be made effective and participative by ensuring that community members are capacitated accordingly. As a key contribution to the body of knowledge, this study developed a context-based adaptive strategic framework for ensuring effective and participative public participation practice based on local realities thus to ensure sustainable development.Item Embargo Spatio-temporal analysis of Mopane Worm utilisation in South-Western Zimbabwe(2025-05-16) Gondo, Tendayi; Adeboyejo, Aina Thompson; Chakwizira, JamesRural areas of developing countries such as Zimbabwe and other emerging economies have in recent years become a source of several pertinent international concerns. Major areas of concern include extreme poverty and hunger, and rising spatial and interpersonal disparities, challenges that the concerned national governments and the wider international community have failed to make meaningful headway in addressing. With the share of traditional sectors of agriculture, mining and manufacturing declining, many rural households in southwestern district of Matobo District in Zimbabwe Mopane Worms (MWs) have emerged as an alternative resource that can be harnessed for the betterment of their local economies. Such attention have been complement by efforts from international development partners such as the International Labour Organization (ILO), Department for International Development (DFID), Global Environment Fund (GEF) and local development agencies such as Southern Alliance Fore Indigenous Resources (SAFIRE), Institute of Environmental Studies (IES), and local academic institutions among others who have invested their efforts in trying to optimise local gains from MW utilisation. Such efforts have unfortunately missed the fundamental knowledge deficiencies associated with MW utilisation, that makes it currently difficulty to craft a MW oriented LED strategy. There is currently dearth of research scholarship on the spatiotemporal dynamics associated with MW resource dependency. We also lack data on spatio-temporal factors that shape successful territorial dynamics that would lead to situations of growth in the MW industry and the local economy. We lack a complete understanding of resilience dynamics associated with MW territories and how such may limit or enhance capacities of concerned communities when faced with adversity. Finally, no single study has drawn important connections between MW utilisation and the local economy. The present study sought to bridge this knowledge gap by addressing these shortcomings using a case study of five villages drawn to the southwestern rural district of Matobo, in Zimbabwe. Using a combination of household survey data and a series of PRA studies conducted, the study employed a variety of statistical tools and calculation of partial LED indices such as The Gini Coefficient, Successfully Territorial Dynamic Index, Rural access index, Resilience capacity among others to estimate the impact of MW utilisation on the local economy. Logistic regression analysis was employed to understand MW resource dependency. Other approaches such as Data Envelop Analysis (DEA) were also used to assess the contribution of MW use towards addressing territorial imbalances. Our findings reveal that in addition to widely mentioned socio-demographic variables, MW resource dependency is heavily influenced by many special variables including rural access, distance to markets, market efficiency. A combination of results from DEA and use of clustering algorithms revealed that a MW territory’s capabilities in terms of social, economic, institutional, ecological and engineering capability attributes is crucial in determining territorial success. The study also revealed important positive differences between the partial LED indices of communities where the intensity of trade measured by the Household commercialisation Index (HCI) was high. We found out that MW are reducing income inequalities, territorial imbalances, and in enhancing the resilience capacities of communities. We conclude by proposing a MW-oriented LED strategy that strikes a balance between pro-growth and pro-poor interventions. We proposed the implementation of both an input-oriented and output-oriented LED strategy that is place sensitive. A progressive entrepreneurial ecosystem frame is developed that may lead to situations of growth in theItem Embargo Diversity and species overlap of Botryosphaeriaceae on some trees of Anacardiaceae in disturbed and undisturbed ecosystems in South Africa(2025-05-16) Ramabulana, Elelwani; Ogola, J. B. O.; Kunjeku, E.; Coetzee, M. P. A.; Slippers, B.The Botryosphaeriaceae are common and diverse on native and non-native plants. It has been established that the ability of Botryosphaeriaceae fungi to exist in healthy plant tissues as endophytes facilitates their global movement during the international trade of plants and plant products. It is important to understand whether fungi in the Botryosphaeriaceae have a restricted host range or a limited geographic distribution once introduced into new areas, and how ecosystem disturbances through human activities influence species diversity and distribution of fungi in the Botryosphaeriaceae. The current study explored Botryosphaeriaceae species diversity on native and non-native tree species of Anacardiaceae found in disturbed and undisturbed ecosystems, as well as species overlap of the Botryosphaeriaceae as endophytes and as pathogens in asymptomatic and symptomatic tissues of these trees. In addition, the genetic diversity and population structure of N. parvum, the dominant species occurring on asymptomatic mango fruit were assessed. These questions were addressed by sampling three tree species of Anacardiaceae, namely Sclerocarya birrea (marula), Mangifera indica (mango) and Lannea Schweinfurthii (false marula) in disturbed and undisturbed ecosystems in the Limpopo and Mpumalanga provinces, South Africa. The ecosystem disturbance study identified 11 species of Botryosphaeriaceae, namely Diplodia allocellula, Dothiorella brevicollis, Dothiorella dulcispinae, Dothiorella viticola, Lasiodiplodia crassispora, Lasiodiplodia exigua, Lasiodiplodia gonubiensis, Lasiodiplodia mahajangana, Neofusicoccum parvum, Oblongocollomyces ednahkunjekuae and Oblongocollomyces sp. 1 occurring on native and non-native Anacardiaceae in disturbed and undisturbed ecosystems. Ten of the 11 species were identified on trees in undisturbed ecosystems, while three were identified on trees in disturbed ecosystems. Lasiodiplodia crassispora and L. mahajangana were generalists on trees in disturbed and undisturbed ecosystems. The results from this study also indicated the ability of some species to cross-infect native and non-native Anacardiaceae growing next to each other. For example, N. parvum isolates occurred on both S. birrea (a native species) and M. indica (a non-native species) trees adjacent to each other in disturbed ecosystems. An investigation on species occurrence of the Botryosphaeriaceae as endophytes and as pathogens on the Anacardiaceae identified 12 species of Botryosphaeriaceae, D. allocellula, Dothiorella brevicollis, Do. dulcispinae, Do. viticola, Lasiodiplodia crassispora, L. exigua, L. gonubiensis, L. mahajangana, L. pseudotheobromae, Neofusicoccum parvum, Oblongocollomyces ednahkunjekuae and Oblongocollomyces sp. 1 in asymptomatic and symptomatic tissues. Dothiorella dulcispinae, L. exigua, L. gonubiensis, Oblongocollomyces ednahkunjekuae and Oblongocollomyces sp. 1 were exclusive to asymptomatic Anacardiaceae, while D. allocellula, Do. brevicollis, Do. viticola, L. crassispora, L. mahajangana and N. parvum occurred in asymptomatic and symptomatic Anacardiaceae indicating the ability to occupy healthy plant tissues as latent opportunistic pathogens on these trees. The N. parvum population genetics data was assessed based on nine microsatellite markers. This study indicated that the N. parvum population consists of three distinct genetic clusters characterized by high levels of genetic diversity. The three clusters were not correlated to host or geographic location indicating the lack of barrier on the movement of the fungus between the hosts and locations sampled. The study highlights the potential of mango fruit to serve as a source of international spread of Botryosphaeriaceae, especially of N. parvum.Item Embargo A learning domain-based training approach for smallholder irrigated maize farming in Mashonaland Central Province of Zimbabwe(2025-05-16) Binala, Livinia; Francis, J.; Mupetesi, T.The study was carried out to investigate the effectiveness of training approaches for smallholder irrigated maize farmers in Zimbabwe, particularly their crucial role in national food security and rural livelihoods. Despite irrigation's potential to boost productivity of maize, many farmers encountered challenges in adopting improved practices partly due to inadequate training methods. Thus, the study sought to evaluate current training frameworks and propose a comprehensive model integrating Bloom's taxonomy of learning domains to enhance knowledge acquisition and practical skills among farmers. The objectives of the study were 1) to identify the key learning domains for effective use of irrigation technologies in smallholder maize farming in Mashonaland Central Province 2) to propose a training approach that is tailored to the identified learning domains and the specific needs and constraints of smallholder farmers in Mashonaland Central; 3) to evaluate the effectiveness of the developed training approach on the productivity and income of smallholder maize farmers in Mashonaland Central Province; and 4) to assess the effectiveness of the developed training approach in improving the knowledge and skills of smallholder farmers in the use of irrigation technologies for maize farming. Three irrigation schemes that focused on maize production and located in two natural regions, that is, II and IV within Mashonaland Central Province were purposively selected. Proximity to the Harare, the capital city or extent of the scheme’s rurality was considered. The census method of data collection was applied. All the 472 farmers involved in irrigation in the three schemes were earmarked for the questionnaire-based survey. Employing a mixed-methods approach, the study combined quantitative surveys and qualitative interviews with farmers and agricultural extension officers across the three irrigation schemes. Key findings indicated that Farmer Field Schools (FFS) significantly outperformed traditional Master Farmer Training (MFT) in promoting effective learning and adoption of sustainable practices (P < 0.05). The study underscored the importance of participatory training methods, which resonate more effectively with farmers' needs and educational backgrounds. Using the results of the study, a framework that includes the following as the key components was proposed: a) Incorporation of cognitive, affective, and psychomotor learning domains b) Prioritization of hands-on training with visual aids c) Promotion of sustainable farming practices d) Strengthening of farmer-extension linkages e) Investment in teaching materials and monitoring mechanisms This study advocated for a paradigm shift in agricultural training methodologies. Adopting the recommended framework would enable policymakers and practitioners to significantly enhance the productivity and livelihoods of smallholder maize farmers, thereby contributing to improved food security. Furthermore, the study highlighted the need for deploying participatory and practical training, addressing key skills gaps, in addition to developing robust farmer-extension relationships to achieve these goals. Integration of Bloom's learning domains into farmer training curricula is a strategic roadmap for designing more effective and impactful training of smallholder irrigated maize farmers.Item Embargo Impact of an artificial insemination programme on reproductive efficacy and the cross-breeding if indigenous South African goats with Boer goats in Vhembe District(2025-05-16) Nethengwe, Luvhengo Dakalo; Bhebhe, E.; Manjoro, M.; Fushai, F.To date, no attempt has been made to establish animal-assisted reproduction centres designed to facilitate controlled goat breeding, from which efficient oestrous synchronization and artificial insemination (AI) protocols can be administered in the communal farming areas of Vhembe district. The first study aimed to determine the socioeconomic dynamics associated with establishing assisted reproduction centres designed and equipped to facilitate effective artificial insemination (AI) service to improve South African indigenous goat production in the Vhembe district. A total of 140 communal goat farmers participated in the study. In-depth one-on-one interviews and focus group discussions were conducted to collect qualitative data. Questionnaires were used to collect quantitative data. Most (89.3 %) farmers accepted AI, and the use of the Boer goat to upgrade the indigenous goat, and to combat inbreeding through AI. Seventy per cent of the respondents showed interest in pen feeding and in separating does from bucks during oestrous synchronization and AI, while the remaining 30% could not afford to pen feed and separate their animals, though they were receptive to being part of the AI program. The farmer disposition to the proposed interventions, and the level of participation justified continuation of the research into animal assisted reproductive technology centres, to address the technical constraints to implementing AI, and advance the socio-economic development. The second study focused on affordable and effective spermatozoa extenders and preservation methods. Experiment 1 aimed to evaluate the motility, velocity, morphology properties and viability of Boer goat sperm stored at 5°C for 168 hours. A total of 48 ejaculates were collected from four Boer goat bucks twice a week for 6 weeks. Only uncontaminated ejaculates containing spermatozoa with >80% progressive motility rate and concentration >1.0 x 109 spermatozoa/ml were used. Tris extender-based bovine amniotic fluid of 10, 13 and 18 cm head-tail length fetus (60, 70 and 80 days pregnancy, respectively), denoted (BAF10, BAF13 and BAF18, respectively) were tested. Ejaculated spermatozoa samples were pooled and homogenized before dilution at a ratio of 1:4 with TEY, TBAF10, TBAF13 and TBAF18 extenders. Diluted spermatozoa samples were then stored at 5°C for 168 h and evaluated in a 4 (extenders) X 8 (storage time) factorial experiment replicated 12 times. Total motility was highest in sperm diluted with TBAF18 at 0 h, while progressive motility showed the lowest value in TEY at 96 h. In experiment 2, Boer goat semen was cryopreserved at -196 °C for 7 days in Tris extender-based bovine amniotic fluid and replicated 12 times. The semen samples were loaded into 0.25 ml France straws, sealed, and cooled at 5 °C for 4 h to equilibrate. After equilibration, the straws were frozen in liquid nitrogen (LN2) vapour. The straw was immersed into LN2 and kept at -196 °C for 7 days. After thawing at 37 °C for 60 seconds, the spermatozoa were evaluated for spermatozoa motility, viability, and morphology defects in a randomised design. The results revealed that the highest spermatozoa motility was observed with TBAF18 after the cryopreservation effect. No significant difference was observed between TEY and TBAF13 during refrigeration. Meanwhile, this was again observed for the spermatozoa motility parameters evaluated after freezing. In a third study, four animal-assisted reproduction centres were established to facilitate controlled animal breeding, efficient oestrous synchronization and artificial insemination (AI) with fresh/frozen semen extended and cryopreserved following the protocols which were developed in experiments 1 & 2 in the 2nd study. The inseminated does were released into their routine grazing in the communal land until 42 days, after which pregnancy diagnoses were conducted. The objective of this study was to compare the effects of oxytocin, human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) and prostaglandin F2α (PGF2α) treatments at the time of AI using fresh/frozen semen. Oxytocin, PGF2α and hCG showed a significant effect on improving pregnancy rate. A significant effect (P>0.001) was observed in fresh semen diluted in BAF18, with the highest pregnancy rate. Oestrous ovulation-inducing drugs with frozen semen diluted in BAF13, BAF18 and TEY offered approximately equal pregnancy rates (68.8 %, 62.5% & 62.5 %), but the highest percentage was in BAF13. Therefore, there were acceptable beneficial effects of oxytocin, hCG and PGF2α at the time of AI. In conclusion, animal-assisted reproduction centres established to facilitate controlled animal breeding, efficient oestrous synchronization and AI increased the pregnancy rate in South African indigenous goats in the Vhembe District. This will enable goat production to contribute towards generating household cash income and improve the livelihood of rural farmers. Keywords: Artificial insemination; Bovine amniotic fluid, Inbreeding, LivelihoodItem Embargo Multiscale modeling of sodium-iron battery materials(2025-05-16) Dima, Ratshilumela Steve; Maphanga, R. R.; Maluta, E. N.In recent years, there has been a growing interest in alternative energy storage technologies as a result of the diminishing reserves of fossil fuels. The development of these technologies requires a careful evaluation of factors such as energy storage and conversion, implementation costs, and environmental impact. Rechargeable batteries are expected to become crucial energy storage devices and promote a more sustainable energy ecosystem. Battery technology has the potential to become cost competitive, especially for portable applications, and exhibits exceptional efficiency, exceeding 90% in electrical efficiency. Sodium ion batteries are considered to be cost-effective and economically feasible alternatives. This work used multiscale computer modelling techniques to understand, control, and improve the intrinsic properties of NaxMnPO4, an electrode material that undergoes Na intercalation and de-intercalation processes. This work aims to promote a more sustainable energy ecosystem. Firstly, we examine the structural and electrochemical performance of NaxMnPO4 using the first-principle density functional theory method. Comparison of the exchange correlation functionals PBE, PBEsol, and PBE+U was conducted, and the results showed that the PBE+U replicated the structural parameters and the energy band gap values well and was used to further analyse the electrochemical performance of the de-intercalated systems. The effect of Na atom de-intercalation on the structural, electronic, mechanical, and thermodynamic properties of both maricite and olivine polymorphs of NaMnPO4 has been investigated by first-principle calculations. The calculated values for the formation energy were found to be negative for all NaMnPO4 systems, hence the solid solution is predicted for states of de-intercalation. The analysis of the electronic density of states indicated that, during the Na removal stages, the material exhibited a rise in its metallic properties between the first and third stages. On the contrary, in the fourth stage, the material displayed semiconductor behaviour, characterised by a band gap of 0.194 eV. A voltage range of 3.997 to 3.848 V was observed, and the computed formation energy values of the de-intercalated systems were determined to be negative, indicating the anticipated presence of a solid in the material. Secondly, the ab initio molecular dynamics method was used to simulate the dynamic properties of NaxMnPO4 materials at different temperatures. The results showed an increasing mean-square displacement gradient as the number of de-intercalated Na atoms increased. The Na-ion diffusion coefficients for olivine and maricite NaMnPO4 were calculated at 100 K and 300 K. Both polymorphs had low diffusion rates at 100 K but increased at 300 K, suggesting faster ion movement. These findings are crucial for understanding the behavior of NaxMnPO4 materials and their potential applications, as diffusion rates can affect processes such as charge / discharge rates in batteries and ion transport in solid-state electrolytes. Controlling temperature and understanding its influence on diffusion coefficients can optimize the performance of NaxMnPO4 materials. Lastly, the cluster expansion (CE) method was introduced as a multiscale pipelining method, establishing a connection between first-principles calculation and large-scale atomistic simulations, as well as Monte Carlo simulation. CE was used to examine the phase stabilities of Na concentrations in relation to vacancies. The stability of the predicted structures on the isotopically optimized volume binary diagram was assessed by calculating their mechanical, electronic, and dynamic properties. Structures that underwent isotropic volume optimisation yielded a cross-validation score of 1.1 meV. This score suggests that the cluster expansion is of good quality, as it falls below the threshold of 5 meV per active position. Based on the analysis of the electronic structure, it is observed that both parent structures (MnPO4 and NaMnPO4) exhibit semiconducting behaviour, while the remaining structures (Na1MnPO4, Na0.825MnPO4, Na0.75MnPO4, Na0.625MnPO4, and Na0.25MnPO4) have semi-metallic characteristics. The mechanical stability of NaMnPO4 was shown by the estimated elastic constants, since the stability conditions were met for all intercalated systems, except for the parent structure MnPO4. Based on the Pugh criterion pertaining to the properties of ductility and brittleness, the structures of Na1MnPO4, Na0.825MnPO4, Na0.75MnPO4, Na0.625MnPO4, and Na0.25MnPO4 exhibit ductile characteristics, while the structures of Na0.5MnPO4 and MnPO4 display brittleness. In addition, MD simulations were performed, revealing that the mean square displacement slope is influenced by the concentration of sodium ions, whereas the diffusion coefficients of sodium ions are influenced by the temperature. These findings suggest that the addition of sodium ions improves the ductility of Na1-xMnPO4 structures. The higher concentration of sodium ions leads to increased ductility, as evidenced by the ductile characteristics observed in Na1MnPO4 and Na0.825MnPO4. However, as the concentration of sodium ions decreases, the structures become more brittle, as seen in Na0.5MnPO4 and MnPO4. Furthermore, the MD simulations indicate that the movement of sodium ions within the structures is influenced by both the concentration of sodium ions and the temperature, highlighting the complex relationship between the composition and mechanical properties in these materials.Item Embargo Genotyping antibiotic resistance properties of escherichia coli and campylobacter jejuni associated with diarrhoea in young children in the Vhembe District(2025-05-16) Karambwe, Simbarashe; Potgieter, Natasha; Traore, Afsatou NdamaBackground: Diarrhoea continues to threaten the lives of young children in Sub-Saharan Africa. While antibiotic resistance among enteric pathogens such as Escherichia coli (E. coli) and Campylobacter spp. is increasing, surveillance of antimicrobial resistance genes (ARG) is limited in Africa. The need for such studies in Africa was demonstrated by our published review of the literature on surveillance of molecular resistance mechanisms like blaCTX-M. Therefore, this study sought to investigate the genotypic (blaCTX-M and gyrA) antibiotic resistance profiles of bacteria causing diarrhoea in young children in the Vhembe district. Methods: A cross-sectional surveillance was done between August 2020 and August 2021. Diarrhoeal (lose, watery) and non-diarrhoeal (normal, solid) stool samples were collected from children under the age of five at selected hospitals and clinics around the Vhembe District. The Kirby Bauer Disk Diffusion technique was used to screen for antibiotic susceptibility, and PCR and sequencing were used for molecular characterization of antibiotic resistance genes. Results: Of the E. coli positive samples, 39% (18/46; 12 diarrhoeal and 6 non-diarrhoeal) had multi-drug resistance (MDR) to at least three antibiotics, with 33% (6/18) and 11% (2/18) having fluoroquinolone (gyrA) and ß-lactam (blaCTX-M) resistance mechanisms, respectively. Five percent (1/18) of the samples carried both gyrA and blaCTX-M genes. The prevalence of Campylobacter in diarrhoeal stools was 13.8% and gyrA gene was partially detected. Conclusion: Children under the age of two in the Vhembe District continue to be at risk from diarrhoea due to antibiotic resistant Escherichia coli and Campylobacter. This study raises awareness of the prevalence of MDR, and aids medical professionals in implementing the appropriate treatment. Future research should consider concurrent studies on clinical and environmental samples to determine the possible role of livestock and river water as carriers of antibiotic resistance genes.Item Embargo Understanding the properties of the interface between graphene and transition metal oxide thin films using first principle approaches(2025-05-16) Phuthu, Lutendo; Maluta, Eric; Maphanga, RapelaRecently, carbonaceous nanomaterials such as carbon nanotubes and two-dimensional graphene have attracted the attention of the scienti c community in probes to improve energy conversion and storage technologies. The graphene sheet is preferred due to its large speci c area, exible structure, high transparency, excellent mobility of charge carriers and is expected to be able to slow the charge recombination. Graphene/transition metal oxides nanocomposite study has become much of a wide interest recently with metal oxides like TiO2, ZnO, SnO2, etc. These metal oxides are used as thin lms in photovoltaic technology to harness energy. The nal composite embodies both the transport properties of the former and the semiconducting properties of the latter species. This work describes an analysis of the electronic and optical properties of the nal composite studied using the Density Functional Theory (DFT) in application to dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs). The study aims to slow charge recombination in DSSCs and improve the e ciency of the cell. The geometry optimizations for the electronic and optical properties were performed by the rst principle calculations based on density functional theory. Various supercells of graphene were modelled and, optimized and their properties were calculated. The results show that different graphene supercells have di erent electronic and optical properties. When graphene is incorporated into a brookite TiO2, the composite results show a reduced energy band gap compared to that of a brookite TiO2 without a graphene on it. The optical properties showed graphene/TiO2 increases absorption in the infrared region.Item Open Access Green synthesis of copper nanoparticles using Lannea discolor (Sond.) Engl. and evaluation of their biological efficacy(2025-05-16) Rambau, Unarine; Masevhe, N. A.; Samie, A.Worldwide, herbal medicine has become a preferred source of therapy as it contains an array of bioactive phytochemicals, is biologically compatible, and has been used to synthesize nanoparticles with advanced therapeutic potential. Lannea discolor, commonly known as “dikbas,” occurs in southern Africa and is extensively utilized as a traditional medicine. This study explores the phytochemical composition of the plant extracts, identifying potential active compounds. Qualitative and quantitative phytochemical screening and radical scavenging capabilities of the crude extracts of Lannea discolor revealed the presence and abundance of flavonoids, fatty acids, phenolics, and terpenoids and high antioxidant activity. Using LC-MS, several compounds were elucidated by comparing the molecular formulae and retention times with those already published in various chemical databases. The extracts displayed efficient antibacterial activity when evaluated against Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Klebsiella pneumoniae. Additionally, the methanolic and acetone extracts were highly toxic against the Caco-2 cancer cell line. The study also focuses on the green synthesis of copper, gold, and silver nanoparticles using Lannea discolor plant extracts as reducing and stabilizing agents. Biosynthesis of copper, gold, and silver nanoparticles was executed using the different extracts at temperatures of 25 °C and 80 °C. The composition of the synthesized nanoparticles (NPs) was confirmed visually by the observation of color change and characterized by UV-Vis, FEGSEM, EDX, HRTEM, FTIR, and Zetasizer. Plasmon resonance peaks confirmed that the particle interfaces were coated with phytochemicals. Evaluation of the zeta potential affirmed the extent of the stability of the NPs, as substantiated by conclusive negative potential values. Elemental mapping revealed particles consisting of copper, gold, and silver among the main elements. The nanoflowers resulting from the reduction of leaf extracts and the nanoparticles acquired from the stem and root of Lannea discolor ranged from 30–97 nm and 9–37 nm, respectively, while the copper nanoparticles had sizes of 20–104 nm. Both nanoparticles showed potential for application in biomedicine and conductivity for manufacturing industries. The gold nanoparticles exhibited exceptional antibacterial activity, while the copper nanoparticles had no activities. Furthermore, silver nanoparticles were synthesized to evaluate their antibacterial activity and cytotoxicity against Caco-2 cells. The spherical silver nanoparticles had notable activity against the bacteria Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, as well as Klebsiella pneumoniae, and were able to inhibit cell proliferation in Caco-2 cells, demonstrating their intrinsic potential as both antibacterial and anticancer agents. Additionally, the nanoparticles showed notable antioxidant activities. As the first study based on phytochemical profiling of L. discolor, this work highlights its potential for unexploited medicinal properties. This was the first study on nanoparticle synthesis of L. discolor, and it contributes positively to the eco-friendly and liberal technique of fabricating nanoparticles for the manufacturing of novel drugs from plants used as alternative medicine.Item Embargo Investigation of UV-Induced geometrical isomerisation of helichrysum kraussii extracts and their inhibition potentials for acid corrosion of mild steel, zinc and aluminium(2025-05-16) Sithuba, Tshedza; Murulana, L. C.; Kabanda, M. M.; Madala, N. E.Corrosion is the destruction of material due to chemical or electrochemical processes. Corrosion can be controlled by using corrosion inhibitors. Recently, plants have been explored as possible green corrosion inhibitors because they are environmentally friendly, easy to dispose, easily accessible and cheaper to extract or convert to inhibitors. Plant's metabolites or chemical constituents undergo geometrical isomerisation under the influence of UV light radiation. These changes might affect the extract's ability to inhibit corrosion. In this study, the effect of the UV light radiation on the Helichrysum kraussii (H. kraussii) plant extract was investigated through comparison with the non-UV-radiated H. kraussii plant extracts for mild steel, zinc and aluminium metal corrosion in 1.0 M HCl and H2SO4 at 30-60 ℃. This investigation was made possible by using techniques such as gravimetric weight loss analysis, Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LCMS), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), electrochemical analysis, contact angle, Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), and quantum molecular dynamic simulations. LCMS confirmed the formation of geometrical isomerisation when the H.kraussii extract was exposed to UV radiation. From the gravimetric analysis data, the corrosion rate (CR) was calculated and found to be decreasing with an increase in the concentration of the inhibitor extracts, with the highest concentration (1500ppm) at 30 ℃ having a corrosion rate of 3.92x10-4 and 1.70x10-4 g.cm2.h-1 for UV-radiated and non-radiated extract in 1.0 M H2SO4 for mild steel, respectively. Similar trends have been observed for the zinc and aluminium metals in HCl and H2SO4 solutions. The percentage inhibition efficiency (%IE) was found to increase with the increase in the two extract concentrations in the acidic media. In the presence of non-radiated extract, the % IE for mild steel in 1.0 M HCl was found to be 99.601% for 1500 ppm at 30 ℃. However, in the presence of UV-radiated H. kraussii extract, it was found to be 98.007%. The activation energy (Ea) values were found to increase with an increase in the concentration of both extract inhibitors. This suggests that the corrosion inhibition process of the three studied metals is through physisorption. The values of the change in Gibbs free energy (Δ𝐺𝑎𝑑𝑠𝑜) for both the extracts were found to be negative, indicating that the reaction between the inhibitor molecules and the metal surface was spontaneous. From the electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), the semi-circle diameter for mild steel and zinc metals and the circle diameter for the aluminium metal in the Nyquist plot was found to increase with an increase in the inhibitor concentration. The charge transfer resistance (Rct) values were found to increase with an increase in the extract inhibitor concentrations. For mild steel in 1.0 M H2SO4, the Rct values ranged between 8.751-26.52 Ωm2 and 10.20-26.41 Ωm2 for the UV-radiated and non-radiated extract, respectively. The introduction of the two extract inhibitors in the HCl and H2SO4 solution managed to reduce the corrosion current density (icorr) for mild steel, zinc and aluminium metals. The icorr values for mild steel in 1.0 M H2SO4 ranged between 397.202 -1395.884 mA.cm-2 and 343.358 – 1572.977 mA.cm-2 for the UV-radiated and non-radiated extracts. FTIR performed on the coated mild steel, zinc, and aluminium surface showed functional groups such as C=C, O-H, and N-H for both extracts, which are known to be functional groups of the most effective corrosion inhibitors. Contact angles were used to study the surface morphology of the metals, and it was observed that introducing the extract inhibitors in aggressive solutions changed the metal's surface from hydrophilic to hydrophobic surface. Computational simulations have been studied to demonstrate the most conceivable adsorption arrangements or configurations between the metal surface and the inhibitor. Parallel configuration of the inhibitor molecules on the metal surface was found to be the best configuration, giving high adsorption energy. SEM showed that introducing the two extract inhibitors in the acidic solution protected the metal surface from developing deep pits caused by the acid attack. EDS showed that corrosion took place on the metal surface and that the extract inhibitors were adsorbed on the metal surface based on the functional groups such as oxygen, calcium and nitrogen obtained on the metal surface. X-ray diffraction showed the presence of oxide on the metal surface confirming that the corrosion process took place. Based on the results obtained, it was found that the non-radiated H. kraussii extract was found to be more effective in inhibiting the corrosion of mild steel, zinc and aluminium metals in 1.0 M HCl and H2SO4 than the UV-radiated H. kraussii extract. This suggests that the UV radiation decreases the inhibition efficiency of the H. kraussii extract as an efficient corrosion inhibitor for mild steel, zinc and aluminium metals in 1.0 M HCl and H2SO4. Therefore, it is recommended that the H. kraussii extract be used only as a corrosion inhibitor for mild steel, zinc, and aluminium metals in 1.0 M HCl and H2SO4 in its original state without being exposed to UV radiation.Item Embargo Studies on severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus type -2 in Northern South Africa(2025-05-16) Tambe, Lisa Arrah Mbang; Mavhandu-Ramarumo, Lufuno Grace; Tebit, Denis Manga; Bessong, Pascal ObongBackground: The last three decades have been characterized by the re-emergence of the Coronaviridae family into the human population, causing severe respiratory disease with increased morbidity rates. A dearth of information exists on human coronavirus (HCoV) molecular epidemiology, and circulation in different populations in Africa. As the COVID-19 pandemic progressed across the globe, wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) was proposed as an alternative tool for assessing and monitoring the occurrence of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) at the community level. Additionally, through wastewater-based genomic surveillance of SARS-CoV-2, the evolutionary patterns and distribution of viral types at the population level can be comprehensively characterized. This study systematically reviewed literature published prior to the SARS-CoV-2 outbreak to investigate the prevalence and molecular epidemiology of HCoVs circulating in Africa. Secondly, this study established a wastewater-based surveillance (WBS) system to track the trends of SARS-CoV-2, investigate SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern (VOC) circulating in the population, and determine the prevalence of people infected in the Vhembe and Mopani districts. Thirdly, through WBS, to describe the molecular epidemiology of SARS-CoV-2 and document the respiratory viruses occurring in the Vhembe and Mopani districts. Methodology: A systematic literature review was conducted according to the PRISMA guidelines, to understand the prevalence and molecular epidemiology of HCoVs in Africa. For the second and third objectives, wastewater influents from seven wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) and one waste sedimentation pond (WSP) were collected weekly from January 2021 to June 2022. Out of a total of 487 samples collected, about 75% (365/487) were positive for SARS-CoV-2 RNA by qRT-PCR. Of these, 80 met the criteria for allele-specific genotyping (ASG). Positive SARS-CoV-2 RNA detected throughout the surveillance period were compared to 7-day moving average (7D-MA) of clinical cases reported per sub-district. Next, SARS-CoV-2 RNA detected during the surveillance period was normalized using the flow rate and population size. The Spearman’s correlation coefficient was used to determine the relationship between non-normalized, and normalized SARS-CoV-2 RNA data when compared to the reported clinical cases. Finally, positive SARS-CoV-2 RNA copies with a standard deviation of less than one (SD <1) were used to predict the prevalence of people infected in the study sites using the Monte Carlo simulation model. This predicted prevalence was also compared to the 7D-MA clinical cases reported per sub-district, and the correlation between them was determined. Subsequently, samples positive for SARS-CoV-2 were subjected to whole genome sequences (WGS) using the ATOPlex next-generation sequencing method and analyzed for lineage and clade assignment using the Pangolin and Nextclade tool. Relatedness of identified sequences was determined by phylogenetic analysis. VOC was analyzed for prevalence and geographical distribution. Concordance for VOC between ASG and WGS analyses was determined. Results: Findings from the systematic literature review showed that thirteen out of 54 (24%) African countries had published data on HCoV prevalence and/or genomic epidemiology, from hospitals, clinics, homes, community gatherings, farms, and individuals at airports. The first published data on HCoV was from South Africa in 2008. There was heterogeneity in the type of tests used in determining HCoV prevalence. Two studies reported that risk factors for HCoV include exposure to infected animals or humans. The second objective, establishing a wastewater-based surveillance system was achieved. Briefly, SARS-CoV-2 viral load was detected in wastewater one week prior to increased infection cases reported at the district level during the third and fourth waves, thus serving as an early warning system. Of interest, towards the end of the surveillance period, increased SARS-CoV-2 viral load detected in wastewater were not reflected in the reported clinical cases. Comparing the reported number of cases per district to the predicted prevalence revealed more cases in the Vhembe District than in the Mopani District. Third, SARS-CoV-2 molecular epidemiology and the distribution of respiratory virus were described. A total of 60 SARS-CoV-2 full genomes were analyzed. Delta and Omicron variants were detected as early as January and February 2021, respectively, while the Beta variant was detected in July 2021. Delta variant was significantly predominant at a prevalence of 45%, followed by Omicron (32%), and Beta (5%). Eighteen percent (11/60) of the sequences were assigned a lineage by Pangolin tool, but not a specific WHO variant name. Upon phylogenetic analysis, some of these sequences were seen clustering with the Alpha (2/11) and Delta (2/11) variants, while the remaining sequences clustered with each other. Mutations in the receptor-binding domain (RBD) of the Spike protein (S-protein) were investigated, with some peculiarities observed such as mutation E484K absent in all Beta variant study sequences. Three previously undescribed mutations (A631S, V327I, D427Y) were detected in Delta variant sequences. Concordance in variant assignments between allele-specific genotyping and WGS was seen in 51.2% of the study sequences. Respiratory virus surveillance revealed year-round circulation of human Adenoviruses (HAdVs), while HCoVs, influenza viruses and human parainfluenza viruses (HPIVs) were mostly detected in winter. Influenza A and B viruses (IAV and IBV) detected in the study site in 2021 were remarkably different from those reported in circulation nationwide by the NICD. Specifically, IAV (H5N1)/Guandong, a highly pathogenic influenza virus, was detected, although at a low frequency. Discussion and Conclusion: The systematic review revealed that despite the outbreaks of SARS in Southeast Asia in 2002 and MERS in 2012 in the Middle East, the quantum of virologic investigations on HCoV on the African continent was scanty. Pandemic preparedness requires cognizance of disease outbreaks in other continents, establishment of test and surveillance protocols, and infrastructure for eventualities. Regarding the establishment of a wastewater-based surveillance system for SARS-CoV-2 monitoring, this study demonstrates effective surveillance over an extended period in rural settings. This is important because most reports about the application of WBE for monitoring SARS-CoV-2 and circulating variants are predominantly from more urbanized regions in South Africa and other parts of the world. Thus, it reveals applicability of monitoring pathogens in rural areas, despite challenges encountered such as poor or non-existent sewerage systems. Such challenges are common in the African continent, highlighting the need for more of such investigations to strengthen pandemic preparedness measures. The presence of Delta and Omicron VOCs observed prior to other reports in South Africa highlights the importance of population-based approaches in genomic surveillance over approaches that rely on individual samples. Again, it also emphasizes the need for pandemic preparedness efforts to be extended to all geographic regions. Wastewater is known to potentially capture more viral diversity, including SARS-CoV-2 genetic diversity, and could reveal new viruses and VOCs in circulation before they emerge in the wider human population. Thus, continuous surveillance is necessary for documentation of cryptic lineages, which may contribute towards improving vaccine.Item Embargo Exploring digital strategies used for English First Additional Language reacting by Grade 4 teachers: A case of Thohoyandou Cluster(2025-05-16) Mulaudzi, Israel Creleanor; Lambani, M. N.; Klu, E. K.; Nephawe, F. T.This study, grounded in the pragmatist paradigm, employs a mixed-methods approach underpinned by both positivist and interpretivist paradigms to investigate digital strategies for teaching English First Additional Language (EFAL) reading to Grade 4 learners in the Thohoyandou Cluster. A convergent parallel design was used to integrate quantitative and qualitative findings. The study is framed by the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), alongside Shulman’s Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK), Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory, Constructivist Learning Theory, and Cognitive Load Theory. Its aim was to explore how digital strategies can help address EFAL reading difficulties. One hundred Grade 4 EFAL teachers completed questionnaires for the quantitative phase, while ten teachers were purposively selected for semi-structured interviews and classroom observations in the qualitative phase. Data analysis involved SPSS Version 29 for quantitative data and thematic analysis for qualitative data. Findings suggest that digital strategies enhance learner engagement and language proficiency, contributing to a more dynamic and inclusive EFAL reading programme. However, systemic difficulties such as limited digital infrastructure and insufficient teacher training hinder full implementation. The study recommends that policymakers invest in targeted professional development to build teachers’ digital and pedagogical skills.