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Item Embargo Biomarkers of environmental enteric dysfunction and growth status in infants aged 3–9 months in Thulamela Municipality, Limpopo Province, in South Africa(2026-05-19) Mudau, Zwivhuya Patience; Mushaphi, L. F.; Mabapa, N. S.Background Stunting is the most prevalent form of chronic undernutrition affecting over 165 million children under five years of age globally (WHO, 2006). In 2017, an estimated 1 in every 4 (23%) children aged < 5 years were stunted worldwide (Budge et al., 2019). The study aims to assess biomarkers of environmental enteric dysfunction and growth status in infants aged 3–9 months. Methodology A quantitative cross-sectional study was conducted among 396 infants aged 3–9 months residing in the Thulamela Municipality. Simple random sampling was used to select six clinics per cluster, for a total of 36 clinics. Convenience sampling was used to select 396 infants aged 3–9 months. A researcher-administered questionnaire was used to gather socio-demographic and anthropometric data from the infants. The questionnaire consisted of three sections, namely, section A: which solicited socio-demographic information such as age of infants, birth weight, birth length and immunisation, which was collected from the Road to Health Booklet, section B: where feeding practices information was collected and section C: Record sheet, where anthropometric measurements and blood samples collection were recorded. A phlebotomist collected blood samples from the infants to determine haemoglobin (Hb), ferritin, soluble transferrin receptor (sTfR), retinol-binding protein (RBP-4), thyroglobulin (Tg), C-reactive protein (CRP), and alpha-1-acid glycoprotein (AGP). IBM Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 26 was used to analyse the data. Blood samples were analysed at a specialised human lab at Northwest University (NWU). Data was checked for normality using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. Data distributed normally were presented as means with standard deviations (SD), while non-normally distributed data were presented as median values with interquartile ranges (IQRs). Categorical data were presented as frequencies. Results More than half (50.7%) of mothers knew about breastfeeding, and they mentioned health workers as their source of information. More than half of the mothers had grades 11-12, almost a quarter had tertiary education. More than three-quarters (76.4%) of mothers-initiated breastfeeding immediately after delivery. More than half (50.7%) of the mothers introduced their infants to solid foods at 4–6 months of age. More than a quarter (30.7%) of mothers cited “infant is crying a lot” as a reason for introducing solid foods and fluids. More than a quarter (38.2%) of the mothers fed their infants breast milk and maize meal soft porridge. Majority of infants (96.4%) had sufficient vitamin A. More than a quarter (30.1%) of infants were stunted, 22.2% were underweight while 10.7% of infants were overweight. The majority (68.5%) of infants had low IGF-1 levels, while only 30% had normal levels. About 73.1% of the infants had high FGF-21 levels, 3.6% had normal levels, and only 23.4% had low levels. majority of infants (73.1%) had high IFABP levels, 3.6% had normal levels, and only 23.4% had low levels. About 47.2% of the infants had low CD-14 concentrations, 42.1% had normal concentrations, and 10.7% had high concentrations. Conclusion The results of the study show that mothers have breastfeeding knowledge however complementary feeding knowledge appears to be lacking. The growth status of infants is generally good however, stunting (16.7%) and wasting (5.1%) was observed. The education level of mothers may have contributed to the low prevalence of stunting and wasting. It is concluded that infants in Thulamela have anaemia (84.4% combined). There is good reason for concern about the risks of anaemia. Iron deficiency (ID) as indicated by ferritin and soluble transferrin receptor (sTfR) show that Iron deficiency (ID) exists in infants of Thulamela. The Tg results show that half of the infants had insufficient iodine, and this is a concern given consequences of iodine deficiency. The study results also indicate a growth hormone deficiency, as evidenced by low IGF-1 levels which may hinder linear growth, impair cognitive development, and weaken immune responses to pathogen exposure. The findings also show elevated FGF-21 levels which are associated with an increased risk of growth faltering, particularly during nutritional supplementation. The results of the study show elevated IFABP levels, indicating a compromised gut barrier and associated with poor nutritional status and a higher risk of malnutrition. The study reveals that fewer than 25% of infants showed elevated plasma CD14 levels, which are linked to inadequate nutrition, obesity, and inflammation. This study observed obesity and overweight, suggesting that increased CD14 levels may stem from these conditions in infants.Item Embargo Contribution of Village Chickens to the Household Income of Resource-Limited Communities(2026-05-19) Maswanganye, Miyelani; Manjoro, M.; Chimonyo, M.In developing countries, rural households continue to experience poverty and low-income levels, yet almost every household keeps village chickens. Despite the resilience and adaptability of village chickens to harsh environments and low-input requirements, their potential to generate household income remains unquantified and unexplored. The study's broad objective was to examine the contribution of village chickens to household income in resource-limited communities. The specific objectives were to: (1) determine the factors influencing income generation from village chickens and (2) assess the influence of flock size on household income. A mixed‑methods approach was employed, combining household surveys, focus group discussions, and household observations to generate quantitative and qualitative insights. Eighteen focus group discussions (FGDs) were held. In addition, a purposive sampling technique was used to administer a structured questionnaire to 150 households in the Musina Local Municipality. Quantitative data were analysed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 28, while qualitative data were analysed through thematic content analysis using ATLAS. ti. version 8. The findings revealed that households primarily kept village chickens for meat, highlighting their role in food and nutrition security, while income generation was a secondary but meaningful function. Gender, education, and employment status did not influence chicken sales (P > 0.05). However, flock size (χ2 =18.685; OR = 4.52), livestock training (χ2 = 4.929), and membership in farmer associations (χ2 = 10.894) increased the likelihood of selling village chickens (P > 0.05). The common selling price for chicken ranged from USD 5.79 to USD 6.31. The effects of educational level, chicken ownership, and flock size on price per unit were significant (P < 0.05). Income from chickens was positively related to production potential (ρ = 0.212; P < 0.05) and flock size (ρ = 0.260; P < 0.01). There was an association between chicken sales and food security (P < 0.001). Housing quality conditions, including shelter type (χ² = 9.74), Nesting area (χ² = 34.85), roosting area (χ² = 8.79), and predation control (χ² = 24.21), influenced flock size (P < 0.05). Supplementary feeding (χ² = 10.73), proportion of feeds (χ² = 26.72), vaccination (χ² = 27.43), disease control (χ² = 11.24), and mortality recording (χ² = 5.12) also influenced flock size (P < 0.05). Socio-economic demographics, including livestock training (χ² = 23.45; RO = 1.24), membership of a farmers' association (χ² = 4.05; RO = 1.61), and employment status (χ² = 5.12), were associated with flock size (P < 0.05). Larger flocks were strongly associated with higher sales and income, particularly during the festive (Y = 7.93x + 7.68; P < 0.05) with each additional bird associated with about USD 7.93 and harvesting (Y = 11.60x + 6.0; P < 0.05) periods, with an addition of and USD 11.60, respectively. confirming that flock size is a key asset enabling market participation. Despite this income from chickens remained modest (USD 75 per household per year), constrained by slow growth rates, limited markets, pricing inconsistencies, and high mortality. It was concluded that increasing village chicken flock sizes greatly enhances household income, food security and rural livelihoods. Efforts to increase flock size, therefore, need to be strengthened.Item Open Access Groundwater Resource Supply Augmentation: A Case Study of Dzamba and Mabulo Villages in Vhembe District Municipality, Limpopo Province, South Africa(2026-05-19) Munyai, Funzani Duncan; Kataka, M. O.The Limpopo Province of South Africa is relatively water-scarce due to climate change, population growth, and economic development. It is well known that every geographical area has some inborn causes of water scarcity related to its origin, structure, geographical location, and setup. The study area is located in Thulamela Local Municipality (TLM) in the Vhembe District, Limpopo province of South Africa, and faces many challenges, including a lack of sustainable water supply. Based on the location of the communities living in the area (being in the most rural areas of Limpopo province), essential service delivery, like water supply, is a severe problem. Dzamba-Mabulo Communities rely on rivers, streams, and springs for water supply. With the effects of drought and climate change, surface water sources often dry up, leaving these communities in a water crisis. The only alternative water source for this area is the groundwater. Most of the research site is covered by the Soutpansberg Group "hard rock" formations, which essentially have no primary porosity. The weathered and fractured discontinuities, also known as secondary porosities, are where groundwater is primarily found. Most boreholes drilled at the research site are poor yielding because most existing boreholes were not scientifically sited. Due to the complex nature of the underlying hard rock, the available groundwater is in the fractured aquifer systems. The study aims to explore groundwater and develop wells for these communities to augment the existing water supply for sustainable use. Groundwater supply was developed (siting, drilling, pump testing, and water quality testing) in groundwater potential areas. The transmissivity values obtained using Theis and Cooper-Jacob methods were 2,0 m2/day and 1,59 m2/day, respectively. While the Storativity (S) was 0,00003 (Theis method) and 0,4 x 10-7 (Cooper-Jacobs). The study recommends submitting future groundwater project reports within the study area to the Department of Water and Sanitation or Local Municipality to update the groundwater databases. The hydrogeological characteristics of the study site will serve as a basis for future groundwater development data collection within the research area, for future reference. The study found an average yield from the pump test for borehole B1 (newly developed borehole) of 0,37 l/sec over 24 hours of daily pumping. The volume of water allowed to be abstracted per day is 32,10 m3, which can meet the basic human need of 25 litres per person per day for 1,284 persons. This is more than 1,6 times the total 18,950 m3 per day required for the 758 Dzamba and Mabulo Villages population. This amount of water can be abstracted with a dynamic water level of 65 mbgl if pumped for 24 hours or 48,30 mbgl if pumped for 12 hours.Item Embargo Geographic analysis of waste management practices in rural and urban schools: A case study of Maruleng Municipality, Limpopo Province, South Africa.(2026-05-19) Maponya, Makhei Jonas; Mudau, N. V.; Netshisaulu, K. H.This study examined the geographical factors influencing waste management practices across eleven primary schools in the Maruleng Local Municipality, comprising two urban and nine rural schools. Data was collected through focus group interviews with teachers and support staff, supplemented by a quantitative analysis using Chi-square tests to explore associations between school type and waste management challenges. The findings reveal clear disparities between urban and rural schools, with rural schools remaining significantly disadvantaged due to inadequate infrastructure, limited municipal waste collection, and entrenched informal disposal methods such as burning and burying waste. These practices reflect a reactive and unsustainable approach to waste management. Nonetheless, initiatives such as composting, recycling clubs, and environmental awareness programmes illustrate potential pathways for fostering environmental stewardship within school communities. The results further show that effective and sustainable waste management cannot rely solely on infrastructure; it depends on the interaction between cultural practices, learner behavior, institutional support, and municipal service provision. The success of composting initiatives at Seagotle, Makgwahleng, and Lepono demonstrates that integrating waste management activities into the school curriculum can position schools as catalysts for environmental change. In contrast, urban schools displayed more structured systems supported by partnerships and formal disposal mechanisms. Grounded in the Theory of Planned Behaviour, the study concludes that improving school-based waste management requires strengthening positive environmental attitudes, promoting supportive social norms, and enhancing perceived behavioural control through the provision of adequate resources, training, and municipal collaboration.Item Embargo Synthesis of carbon nanotubes from tyre rubber waste for application in the removal of pharmaceutical contaminants in aquatic ecosystems(2026-05-19) Tshotheli, Happiness; Mudzielwana, R.; Pindihama, G. K.The presence of pharmaceutical contaminants in aquatic ecosystems is a growing environmental concern due to their significant impacts. This study was designed to assess the occurrence of amoxicillin, aspirin, efavirenz, and levonorgestrel in effluent of selected wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in Vhembe and Mopani Districts, as well as in their respective receiving streams. The study further evaluated the feasibility of synthesising carbon nanotubes (CNTs) from tyre rubber waste for the adsorption of prevalent pharmaceutical contaminants. The first chapter of results focused on assessing the presence of amoxicillin, aspirin, efavirenz, and levonorgestrel in wastewater effluent and the respective streams of the Vhembe and Mopane districts. A total of 42 samples collected in duplicate over a three-month period (July, August, and September) were subjected to solid-phase extraction (SPE), followed by analysis with a High-Performance Liquid Chromatograph (HPLC) coupled with a photodiode array (PDA) detector. The observed concentration range of the analysed compounds were 1.70×10-3 to 4.16×10-2 mg/L (effluent) and 4.0×10-4 to 1.68×10-2 mg/L (surface water) for efavirenz, 3.19×10-3 to 5.34×10-2 mg/L (effluent) and 1.0×10-3 to 2.44×10-2 mg/L (surface water) for levonorgestrel, 0.14 to 4.07 mg/L (effluent) and 0.52 to 4.13 mg/L (surface water) for amoxicillin, 0.46 to 4.75 mg/L (effluent) and 4.70×10-2 5 to 1.19 mg/L (surface water) for aspirin. Based on the results, amoxicillin was prevalent, with the highest concentrations in both the effluent and receiving streams. Owing to the dominance of amoxicillin in all treatment plants, the second chapter focused on the synthesis of CNTs from tyre rubber waste for the adsorption of amoxicillin from water. The CNTs were produced by pyrolysis of carbonised tyres, with ferrocene as a catalyst. For the characterisation of the CNTs, Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) revealed functional groups typical of carbon nanotubes, including C=O, C–H, and C=C bonds. Additionally, Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) analysis indicated a surface area of 90.16 m²/g. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) identified fibrous features, while Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) revealed nearly spherical amorphous structures, which were concluded to be SWCNTs. Lastly, the particle size analyser recorded a particle size of 25.53 μm. Batch experiments were conducted to evaluate the removal efficiencies of amoxicillin by CNTs from water under various conditions. The maximum removal efficiency of 96.91% was achieved under the following conditions: a contact time of 90 min, a pH of 8, and an adsorbent dose of 60 mg at 35 °C. Furthermore, the adsorption process better fits the Freundlich isotherm model, indicating a heterogeneous surface influences multilayer adsorption. The adsorption capacity of amoxicillin was determined to be 25.46 mg/g for the synthesised CNTs. Additionally, the kinetics were better described by a pseudo-second order model, suggesting the dominance of a chemisorption mechanism. Adsorption isotherm studies revealed that amoxicillin adsorption on CNTs was endothermic and non-spontaneous. Furthermore, the material remained stable throughout 9 regeneration cycles, with efficiency decreasing to below 80% in the 8th cycle. The maximum amoxicillin removal efficiency from real water samples was 69.99%. From the observed results, the synthesised material has potential for application in the removal of amoxicillin from water In conclusion, amoxicillin, aspirin, efavirenz, and levonorgestrel were present in both wastewater effluent and receiving streams. Amoxicillin was detected at higher concentrations in the samples, prompting an investigation into its removal using in-house-synthesised CNTs derived from tyre rubber waste. This revealed significant potential to source adsorbents from environmental waste. This study further recommends (i) The inclusion of pharmaceutical contaminants in the routine monitoring of contaminants in essential water streams by relevant authorities, (ii) Further studies focusing on tertiary treatment methods targeting pharmaceutical compounds.Item Embargo Modelling streamflow response under different climate change scenarios in Luvuvhu River Catchment, South Africa(2026-05-19) Musitha, Mpho David; Makungo, R.; Nkuna, T. R.Climatic change vulnerability assessments needs the evaluation of climatic threats to water systems as well as the design of effective strategies. The factors and repercussions of climate change are multifaceted, encompassing several ironic elements, particularly the reality that low-income nations are the most vulnerable to its impacts while contributing the least to the human activities that exacerbate climate change. This research examines climate change scenarios utilizing four potential future scenarios, referred to as Shared Socio-economic Pathways (SSPs), encompass SSP1-2.6, SSP2-4.5, SSP3-7.0, and SSP5-8.5 across twelve general circulation models (GCMs) from the CMIP6 framework. Streamflow responses were evaluated for two distinct timeframes: near future (2015 - 2050) and far future (2051 - 2100), with historical data analysed for a period of 1980 to 2014. Climate stress tests were conducted, and an analysis was carried out to model the streamflow response in the Luvuvhu River Catchment (LRC) to changing climate conditions using Soil Water Assessment Tool (SWAT). Readily accessible spatial and temporal data were utilized and the model was calibrated with recorded monthly streamflow data. The performance of the model was assessed through computation of Nash-Sutcliffe Efficiency (NSE), Percent Bias (PBIAS), and the coefficient of determination (R²). The calibration findings for monthly simulation for the (1991-1999) period fell within acceptable model performance limits, with an NSE of 0.57, PBIAS of -0.35, and R2 of 0.74. Validation findings for monthly simulations from 2001 to 2009 were mostly acceptable ranges for model performance with NSE (0.49), PBIAS (-0.50) and R2 (0.52). The observed and simulated streamflow showed strong agreement, as confirmed by both graphical analysis and quantitative statistics. Projected annual precipitation and temperature changes showed that the LRC climate will be warmer in most scenarios than wetter as most of the streamflow respond fell under high risks of about 30% decrease in precipitation. As a result, the study findings highlights the need for well-informed management and adaptation strategies by showing how modeling streamflow response under various climate scenarios can offer crucial insights into how rising temperatures and decreasing precipitation are likely to reduce water availability in the LRC.Item Embargo Time series analysis for the dam water levels and rainfall for Albasini Dam in Limpopo Province, South Africa(2026-05-19) Nemudivhiso, Hangwani Jennifer; Makungo, R.; Ikudayisi, A.Changes in precipitation characteristics and trends can cause extreme events such as drought and floods to occur more frequently in river basins around the world. Also, the impact of these changes on dam infrastructure is very high. Therefore, continuous research and quantitative assessment of the data surrounding dams is highly recommended. This study focused on the time series analysis of Albasini Dam in Limpopo Province using the Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA) model. This was done to assess the hydrological hazard and dam safety risks by using historic and future seasonal trends of the rainfall and dam levels. ARIMA is one of the most widely used models for time series forecasting. It is particularly effective for univariate time series data that exhibit patterns of autocorrelation, trends, and non-stationarity. The monthly historic data for dam water levels and rainfall from 1997 to 2024 for the study area were obtained from the Department of Water and Sanitation. In applying the ARIMA model to the datasets, the time series plot for the dam water level and rainfall from 1997 to 2024 was done. Afterwards, the time series went through the differencing and both rainfall and dam water level indicated a correct pattern and constant mean. The Ljung Box test was also conducted to test the presence of the unit root. Standard deviation for the rainfall was 116.20 mm and dam water level was 2.70 m, indicating the sample mean being low and accurate. Lag 1 and 2 from the Auto Correlation Function and Partial Auto Correlation Function correlation analysis resulted in less than 5% significant from 24 lag transformation. The Mean Absolute Percentage Error of 0.72, RMSE of 0.15, MAE of 0.11 indicated a good model fit for rainfall and dam water level. The rainfall indicates a higher value of the residual ACF and PACF by showing no significant spikes. The optimum models were used to forecast rainfall and water dam levels for 5, 10, and 15 years at the case study. One major observation was that the predicted April 2040 data show a worrisome dam water level of 19.60 m, which is the highest recording when compared to April 2000, which was 19.53 m. The prediction provides the output value that needs preparation in terms of dam safety for overflooding of downstream villages and aquatic life. The ARIMA models demonstrate robust performance for prolonged seasonal time series and time series chart that shows the historic trend of the dam level and the rainfall activity showing similar trend for the forecasted years (2029).Item Embargo Evaluating CMIP6 Models in Simulating Southwest Indian Ocean Tropical Cyclone Activity (1979–2014): Comparison with ERA-5 Reanalysis(2026-05-19) Nembilwi, Wamashudu Joel; Chikoore, H.; Engelbrecht, F.; Hodges, K.; Nethengwe, N. S.Tropical cyclones are environmentally and socio-economically destructive phenomena in sub-Saharan. Yet there is still a lack of early warning signs and minimal studies on the simulation of tropical cyclones which attribute more venerability to the societies in the sub-continent. This study investigates the performance of ten global climate models in simulating the characteristics of Southwest Indian Ocean (SWIO) tropical cyclone activities. The model’s simulation was performed for 35 years (1979-2014) and validated against the ERA-5 reanalysis data. The study also considers the influence of large-scale environmental conditions through a calculation of the genesis potential index (GPI). The strength of global climate models was tested through the simulation of the inter-annual variability of tropical cyclones in the SWIO. The results show each CMIP6 model displaying a different signature on simulations. The ten analysed CMIP6 models are capable of reproducing the observed annual mean of genesis potential index (GPI) and its associated terms (environmental conditions) in a given region, but most CMIP6 have a lower genesis potential index (GPI) (including terms) than the reanalysis. The selected CMIP6 analysis indicates that all models produce realistic representations of tropical cyclones over the SWIO, while some underestimate and overestimate tropical cyclone activities such as lifetime maximum intensity (LMI), mean intensity, and genesis. However, models that struggled to resemble ERA-5 reanalysis on tropical cyclone activities were able to simulate the inter-annual variability well relative to the reanalysis. The present study illustrates how different models of horizontal resolution simulate tropical cyclone activities and offers insights on how to improve future projections of tropical cyclone activity over the SWIO region.Item Embargo Characterizing the Land Use and Land Cover Change Within and Around Historically Disadvantaged Institutions of Higher Learning in Limpopo Province, South Africa(2026-05-19) Ramatlou, Moloko Shantel; Malahlela, O. E.; Maponya, M. G.The historically disadvantaged institutions (HDIs) of higher learning in South Africa play a pivotal role in advancing education, socio-economic equity, and development. Over time, these institutions have expanded their infrastructure to support their growing academic and socio-economic mandates. However, this development contributed to significant changes in land use and land cover (LULC) within and around their campuses over the years. These changes resulted in land degradation, water resource depletion, biodiversity loss, and climate change caused by carbon emissions and reduced carbon sequestration and storage. This makes it crucial to understand the effects of LULC changes in and around HDIs in South Africa. The geographical information systems (GIS) and remote sensing applications often aid in detecting changes in LULC. However, techniques used to detect these changes also present challenges. Such challenges include differences in spatio-temporal resolutions, inappropriate classification methods, and a lack of sufficient accuracy or robustness for complex classification tasks. Therefore, the study aimed to characterize the LULC change within and around HDIs of higher learning in Limpopo Province, South Africa. The study was conducted within a 10 km radius buffer area (100 km²) around both the Universities of Venda (UNIVEN) and Limpopo (UL), which are the HDIs. The study had two objectives, namely, to: (i) compare classification techniques for mapping LULC change, (ii) build and test hybrid models for mapping LULC change, and (iii) quantify the extent and rate of LULC change from 2010 to 2023. The Landsat 5 Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+) and Landsat 8 Operational Land Imager (OLI) images were downloaded freely from the United States Geological Survey (USGS) website. The downloaded images were pre-processed and used as input for classification. To achieve objective 1, several classification techniques, including Random Forest (RF), Support Vector Machines (SVM), Maximum Likelihood (ML), and K-Nearest Neighbour (KNN), were used to classify LULC. Based on the performance of the individual classifiers, hybrid models were developed using the weighting method that assigned higher weights to the best-performing algorithms to enhance the performance. At the University of Venda, RF and SVM outperformed ML and KNN. The SVM achieved 88.3% overall accuracy with a kappa coefficient (κ) of 0.85, and RF achieved 83.0% with a kappa coefficient of 0.79. The KNN achieved 81.0% (κ = 0.76), and the MLC achieved 73.7% (κ = 0.67). Similarly, SVM and RF at the University of Limpopo performed better than KNN and MLC. The SVM achieved 89.0% (κ = 0.86), RF achieved 82% (κ = 0.78), followed by KNN, which achieved 76.0% (κ = 0.70), and MLC, which achieved 72.0% (κ = 0.65). No significant difference was found between SVM and RF at UNIVEN (p = 0.86) and UL (p = 0.89). No significant difference was detected between KNN and MLC at UNIVEN (p = 0.88) and UL (p = 0.84). There was no significant difference between SVM and MLC at UNIVEN (p = 0.92) and UL (p = 0.93). To achieve objective 2, the best classifiers (SVM and RF) were utilised to construct and evaluate a hybrid model. They were assigned weights of 0.6 and 0.4, respectively, based on their overall accuracy to create a hybrid model (SVMRF) that was compared with the individual classifiers. The SVMRF demonstrated an improvement in classification capability, resulting in enhanced classification results. significantly outperforming individual algorithms. The overall results show a significant difference compared to individual algorithms. The p-value for all comparisons is p < 0.05. To achieve objective 3, the hybrid model (SVMRF) was used to classify and to quantify the extent and the rate of LULC change. The results showed a significant change in LULC between 2010, 2015, and 2023. The result showed notable declines in woodland, bare land, water, and forest in and around the University of Venda. In return, a significant increase was detected in agriculture, tea plantations, and built-up areas. Similarly, in and around the University of Limpopo, areas of bare land, woodland, water, and shrubland have declined, while built-up areas and agricultural land have increased. Across the buffer zones (1 km, 2 km, 5 km, and 10 km radii), the results showed that LULC changes around the University of Venda and University of Limpopo appeared to be driven by rapid settlement expansion fuelled by growing student populations and infrastructure demands. The infrastructure development was spreading into surrounding villages, while agricultural land declined sharply, especially in outer zones (5km and 10 km radii). Woodlands and forests suffered consistent losses, with some forest patches near UNIVEN disappearing entirely, and bare land also shrank slightly. Water bodies initially covered a large area, possibly due to high rainfall, but later declined as a result of land encroachment by infrastructure development, raising concerns in Limpopo’s semi-arid climate. Around the UL, similar trends emerged, with robust growth in built-up areas, slight gains in agriculture followed by losses, and steady declines in woodlands, shrublands, and water areas. These changes pose a threat to biodiversity, ecosystem services, and food security. The results from the statistical analysis showed no significant difference in all the LULC, achieving a p >0,05. The study concludes that hybrid models are more effective for mapping LULC change than individual classifiers. Thus, recommends the use of hybrid modelling for mapping LULC change. Also, the study recommends that future research should use higher-resolution satellite imagery and extend the study period to 30 years to better detect significant LULC change within and around these HDIs.Item Embargo Nitrogen metabolism in meatmaster sheep fed brewers grain as a supplementary source of protein(2026-05-19) Molokomme, Maite; Baloyi, J. J.; Mahlako, K. T.This study aimed to examine how nitrogen metabolism in sheep is affected when brewers’ grains are added to diet as a supplementary protein source. Eight Meatmaster rams (average live weight 30 ± 3.2 kg; approximately 6 months old) were randomly allocated to four iso-energetic and iso-nitrogenous diets, which contained 0%, 10%, 20%, and 30% BSG, denoted BSG0, BSG10, BSG20, and BSG30, respectively. The experiment was conducted using a 4 × 4 Latin square design in duplicate. The sheep were housed in metabolic cages for 19 days, consisting of 14 days adaptation and 5 days for data collection. During this period, feed intake, faecal and urinary outputs, and excreta were measured. Feed and excreta samples were analysed for chemical composition, including dry matter (DM), organic matter (OM), crude protein (CP), ether extract (EE), ash, neutral detergent fibre (NDF), acid detergent fibre (ADF), and condensed tannins (CT) as a percentage of dry matter. These data were used to calculate nutrient intake (g/day); apparent digestibility coefficients (%) for DM, OM, CP, EE, NDF, and ADF; nitrogen metabolism parameters (nitrogen intake (NI), faecal nitrogen (FN), urinary nitrogen (UN), total nitrogen excretion (TNE), and nitrogen retention (NR) in g/day, rumen fermentation and microbial parameters (allantoin concentration (mmol/L), microbial nitrogen yield (g/day), microbial true protein (MTP, g/day), digestible organic matter in the rumen (DOMR, g/day), nitrogen utilisation efficiency (Emns, g N/kg DOMR) and the metabolizable energy (ME, MJ/day) intake. The CT content (as a percentage of dry matter) in the BSG10 diet was significantly higher (P<0.05) than in the other dietary treatments. No significant differences (P>0.05) in the intake of DM, OM, DOMI, and ME were observed. However, CP, EE, acid detergent fibre (ADF), and neutral detergent fibre (NDF) intakes varied significantly (P < 0.05) across treatments. The apparent digestibility coefficient (ADC) of EE showed no notable difference (P>0.05) among BSG0, BSG10, and BSG20. There were no significant differences (P>0.05) in the digestibility coefficients of DM, OM, NDF, ADF, and CP across all treatments. The results showed differences in NI, FN, UN, TNE, and NR(P<0.05) among the treatments. Allantoin concentrations, microbial N yield, MTP, DOMR, and Emns across all treatments were not significantly different (P>0.05). The study confirmed that brewers’ grain is an effective protein source for sheep diets, without negatively affecting rumen function or nitrogen metabolism. The crude protein content of 22.6% in the BSG makes it a suitable partial substitute for traditional protein feeds. The presence of CT in the supplemented diets appears to enhance protein retention by slowing ruminal proteolysis and reducing nitrogen loss through urine. Trends in nitrogen use and allantoin excretion indicate increased rumen microbial activity and microbial protein synthesis with the inclusion of BSG. Thus, BSG can be a suitable supplementary protein source.Item Open Access Investigation factors contributing to the underperformance of Mbahela Irrigation Scheme that benefitted from the revitalisation of smallholder irrigation schemes programme(2026-05-19) Mongwai, Mosatiwa Brenda; Mutema, Mac; Oluwatayo, I.The Limpopo Department of Agriculture revitalised several irrigation schemes in Limpopo Province between 2001 and 2008; however, most of them later collapsed again, while others are underutilised. Revitalisation of the collapsed and underutilised irrigation schemes was necessary because of the importance of irrigation schemes for socio-economic development, food security, and poverty alleviation. The study investigated the socio-economic and biophysical factors that cause smallholder irrigation schemes (SIS) to fail, with a view to recommending mitigation strategies and best practices that ensure full operation and sustainability of the irrigation schemes. The irrigation schemes failed to maintain the commercial farming standards set during the Revitalisation of Smallholder Irrigation Schemes (RESIS) programme due to several factors, such as lack of training, poor access to finance and markets, and division of the irrigation schemes back into individual plots. The study also investigated water losses from the water supply and infield canals. Poor water conveyance efficiency is also thought to have contributed to the failure of the irrigation schemes. The study was conducted at the Mbahela Irrigation Scheme. Two sets of data, experimental and questionnaire data, were collected for this study. Researcher-administered questionnaires were presented to 61 individual plot-holders at the Mbahela Irrigation Scheme using their preferred languages. Data obtained through questionnaire administration was analysed using descriptive statistics and a logistic regression model. Experimental data were collected using water flow meters. Water flow measurements were performed on the main and field canals. The canal network transmits water diverted from the Mutale River to the irrigation scheme. The water flow data were used to compute water losses using the inflow-outflow approach. The experimental data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and analysis of variance (ANOVA). Significant differences were tested using the t– test. The study results revealed that canal water losses contributed significantly to the failure of the irrigation scheme. The overall conveyance efficiency of the canal system was found to be 56%, meaning 44% of the water abstracted from the Mutale River escapes the canal before reaching its destination. Analysis of other factors affecting the Mbahela Irrigation Scheme showed a complex interplay of socio-economic, governance, and infrastructure-related variables. The presence of both positive and negative influences was observed, suggesting that success in such a scheme requires an integrated approach, addressing education, infrastructure, governance, and farmer incentives. There is a need to improve the deteriorated canal lining to minimize water losses and improve the velocity of water.Item Open Access Exploring cattle tick infestations, farmers knowledge, attitudes, and control practices in selected villages of Collins Chabane Local Municipality, Limpopo Province(2026-05-19) Moseri, Uhone Budi Princess; Bhebbe, Evison; Chitura, TeedzaiTick infestations remain a significant constraint to cattle health and productivity in communal farming systems of South Africa. A cross-sectional mixed-methods approach was employed, combining tick surveys, clinical examinations of cattle, and a farmer’s knowledge, attitudes and perceptions (KAP) survey conducted during routine dipping days. Adult ticks were systematically collected from cattle, preserved in 70% ethanol and identified morphologically using standard taxonomic keys. A clinical evaluation checklist was used to record tick burden, species composition, attachment sites, tick-induced lesions, and body condition scores. Cattle farmers’ data was collected through face-to-face interviews using a structured questionnaire administered in Xitsonga language. A total of 967 adult ticks were identified, comprising eight species, with Amblyomma hebraeum and Rhipicephalus decoloratus being the most prevalent across both villages. Ntlhaveni village exhibited a higher overall tick burden and greater abundance of Rhipicephalus microplus and Hyalomma rufipes than Matiyani village, suggesting that environmental conditions, grazing patterns, and management practices likely influenced spatial variation. High tick burdens were observed in both villages, with mixed-species infestations being common. Age and physiological status significantly influenced tick burden and tick-induced lesion severity, with growing and pregnant cattle more severely affected. Tick lesions, hair loss and skin thickening were prevalent, and most cattle displayed low to moderate body condition scores, suggesting negative implications for productivity. Despite limited formal livestock training, most farmers demonstrated practical knowledge of tick identification and inspection. However, nearly half of the respondents reported year-round high tick infestations and perceived a decline in acaricide effectiveness, suggesting potential acaricide resistance. Tick infestations were associated with reduced milk production, poor body condition, increased calf mortality, and higher treatment costs. Overall, the study highlights the substantial health and economic burden of ticks in communal cattle systems, underscoring the need for location-specific, integrated, and sustainable tick control strategies supported by strengthened veterinary extension services.Item Embargo Effects of Hot Red Pepper (Capsicum annum) on Growth Performance and Visceral Organs of Ross 308 Broiler Chickens(2026-05-19) Mpyane, Zelda Tebogo; Netshipale, A. J.; Mahlako, K. T.The study investigated the effects of hot red pepper powder’s provision method and level of inclusion on the growth performance and size of visceral organs and tissues of broilers to contribute to the mitigation of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). Three hundred female Ross 308 day-old chicks were used, housed in a deep litter, naturally ventilated, open-sided. Two pepper provision methods (with diet and water) and five levels of pepper inclusion (0, 0.75, 1, 1.25, and 1.5%) were used in a 2 x 5 factorial arrangement with three replications. Broilers were fed starter-finisher antibiotic-free diets from day 8 to 49. Birds had access to water. Birds were weighed on day 8 and at the end of each growth phase. Feed was weighed when offered, and the leftovers were recorded at the end of each week. Water was measured when offered, and refusal was recorded the next morning. On day 50, a random bird from each pen was selected and slaughtered to collect data on the size of visceral organs and tissues. Analysis of variance was conducted using the General Linear Model procedure of Minitab version 19. Means were separated using Tukey’s and LSD procedures at the p< 0.05 significance level. During the starter period, higher (P< 0.01) ADFI of 64-66 g/b/d was observed for the water method with inclusions of 0.75, 1, and 1.5%; heavier (P< 0.01) birds were on pepper in feed (493 g/b) and at 1.25% inclusion (510 g/b) than for 0.75, 1, and 1.5%; and FCR was lower (P< 0.05) at 1.5% than for the control. During the grower phase, provision method and inclusion level did not affect (P> 0.05) growth performance. During the finisher phase, the interaction of the provision method and inclusion level affected ADWI (P< 0.05) and FCR (P> 0.01). Water intake of 268 mL/b/d was higher (P> 0.05) at 1.25% in water than at 1% in water and 0 and 1.5% with feed; poor (P> 0.01) FCR of 4.8 was observed for 0.75% in water, which was like that of 1.5% in feed, during finisher. No mortality occurred during the experimental period. Adding pepper to water increased (P<0.01) spleen size by 0.08%, and liver size was 0.2% bigger at 1.5% inclusion than at 0 and 0.75%. These findings show that adding pepper up to 1.5% is safe for the birds, but the findings on growth performance were not conclusive.Item Embargo Broiler management practices for small-scale farmers and their impact on growth performance(2026-05-19) Ndlovu, Sithembisile; Netshipale, A. J.; Mahlako, K. T.The broiler management practices that were likely to be neglected by small-scale farmers and their effects on broiler growth were investigated. For the management practice study, small-scale broiler farmers who reared 4,000 birds or fewer were targeted. The study investigated 100 farmers in the Bushbuckridge Local Municipality. An exploratory study was conducted to identify the broiler management practices employed by small-scale farmers. A structured questionnaire was used. The collected data included household information on type, ethnic group, marital status, and occupation. The farmers' information included the enterprise’s location, age, gender, education level, farming experience, their farming practices, and standard broiler management techniques. Management practices included the number of broiler houses and their carrying capacities, the number of birds housed, the application of an all-in, all-out rearing strategy, rest periods for the broiler house(s), a vaccination programme, management of sick birds, record-keeping, and waste disposal. Foot bath, feed and water wastage, adjustability of feeders and water troughs, number of feeders and water troughs, heating system, ventilation system, and bedding (colour, wetness, and compactness) were observed during farm visits. The sizes of broiler houses and the depth of the litter were measured. Data was coded for analysis purposes. Data on vaccination, footbath, all-in-all-out, drinkers' and feeders' adjustments, stocking rate, bedding height, house resting, and broiler-to-equipment ratios (per drinker and per feeder) were categorised into adherence and non-adherence/neglect to management practices. The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences/SPSS (IBM Corp., 2023), Version 29.0.0.0 (241), was used to analyse the data. There were 47% female-headed and 53% male-headed households. Sixty-nine percent of farmers were single, 24% were married, and 7% were widowed. The prevalence of male (51%) and female (49%) farmers was quite similar. Youth farmers made up 53%. Farmers had 13% primary, 40% secondary, and 47% higher education. Sixty-five percent of farmers had less than 5 years of farming experience, while the remainder had more. Agriculture: 60% of farmers earned their living solely from farming, whereas 40% earned it from both on-farm and off-farm sources. Most (68%) enterprises were in rural areas. In terms of capacity, most farmers had a single broiler house (74%), and houses that could accommodate 100-500 birds were most common (76%). Most farmers adhered to management practices of stocking rate (94%), house resting (81%), vaccination (94%), all-in and all-out strategy (90%), bird drinker and feeder (equipment) ratio (76%), and equipment adjustment (90%). The two management practices that farmers most neglected were bedding height (96.4%) and foot baths (85%). Overall, the most concurrently neglected practices were adequate resting of the broiler house, adequate bedding, and footbath (57%). For the determination of the effects of the neglected standard management practices on growth performance study, thirty (30) small-scale broiler farmers were purposively sampled. The management strategies investigated and the number of enterprises sampled were: 0 = adhering to the five key management practices (7); 1 = inadequate resting of the house and bedding, and no footbath (7); 2 = inadequate resting of the house and bedding, and no footbath (7); 3 = inadequate bedding and no footbath (7), and 4 = inadequate resting of the house and bedding, no footbath and vaccination, and heights of drinkers and feeders not adjustable (i.e., neglect of the five key managerial practices) (n = 2). A single broiler house, stocked with day-old chicks, was targeted per farmer. Observation tools (record sheet and measurements) were used to collect data for broiler numbers, body weight, mortality, and feed offered. Researchers weighed birds on days 8, 22, and 36. Data were subject to Independent-Samples Kruskal-Wallis Tests in SPSS. Differences in distributions across the management practices were compared, and significance values were adjusted by the Bonferroni correction for multiple tests. Weight gain days 8-21 and day 21 weight were higher (P<0.05) for Strategies 0 (52 ± 8.2 g/b/d and 913 ± 120.0 g) and Strategy 3 (50 ± 5.8 g/b/d and 880 ± 88.7 g) than for Strategy 4 (28 ± 4.1 g/b/d and 548 ± 62.2 g). Fewest broilers died under Strategy 0 (8 ± 6.0), some under Strategies 1 (23 ± 15.1) and 3 (11 ± 8.0), and many under Strategy 4 (45 ± 12.0) during days 1-35. Neglecting house rest and vaccination practices led to poor performance under Strategy 4. Key stakeholders should prioritise these two practices for broiler farming to contribute to poverty eradication and income generation for all.Item Embargo A comparative analysis of perceptions on land expropration by commercial and emerging farmers in Limpopo Province of South Africa(2026-05-19) Ngoepe, Hunadi Annah; Chauke, P. K.The land reform programme has been very slow in achieving its goal. The slow process of the land reform program has led to the initiation of the Land expropriation in line with Section 25 of the South African Constitution. The purpose of the Land Expropriation Act is to expedite the process of giving back the land to the rightful owners, taking note that most of the current landowners have secured loans with the financial institutions. This study seeks to find out how commercial farmers and emerging farmers perceive land expropriation. The study was conducted in five districts of the Limpopo province of South Africa. A simple random sampling technique was used to select 150 participants from a population of 230 farmers. The study made use of structured interviews where questionnaires were used as a primary tool to collect data. Descriptive statistic was used to determine socio-economic characteristics. The study revealed that males dominated the farming industry, with males outnumbering females, particularly among emerging farmers. Likert scale and ordinal logistic regression were used to analyse the data. Emerging farmers expressed the view that land should be expropriated. However, commercial farmers indicated that land should not be expropriated as this would lead to increased poverty and unemployment. Inferential statistical results revealed that race is a key socio-economic factor driving differences in perception about land expropriation. Bank officials agreed that land expropriation would have negative implications on interest rates, leading to a decline in the country’s GDP. Policy implementors should consider the concerns of commercial farmers and banking officials regarding the Land Expropriation Act, which may have significant economic implications. Additionally, they should account the socio-economic characteristics that strongly influence farmers' perceptions of land expropriation.Item Embargo Investigation of Technical and Operational Determinants of Sustainability of Agricultural Cooperatives in the Vhembe District, South Africa(2026-05-19) Mushukwa, Thanyani Cynthia; Tshikororo, M.; Nefale, T. A.Many residents of the Vhembe District Municipality are primarily affected by food insecurity, unemployment, and poverty. As a result of these primary issues, most people turn to farming to ensure food security, alleviate poverty, and generate jobs in their rural communities. Farmers often join forces by forming cooperatives, which allow them to share resources, support one another, and strengthen their business under improved conditions. These cooperatives not only enhance agricultural productivity but also foster resilience and solidarity within rural communities. The study investigated the technical and operational determinants of the sustainability of agricultural cooperatives. The research used a quantitative method. The study was conducted in Vhembe District Municipality. A purposive sampling method was used to sample the four local municipalities within the Vhembe District Municipality. A sample size of 123 agricultural cooperatives was used for analysis. Data were collected using a questionnaire administered during face-to-face interviews. Three methods of data analysis were used in the study: descriptive statistics, discriminant analysis, and a binary logistic regression model. The study revealed the socio-economic characteristics of respondents, with most respondents being between 45 and 59 years old and having more than 10 years of farming experience. The study also found that most agricultural cooperatives were not sustainable (56.9%), while those that were sustainable accounted for 43.1%. The results indicated that agricultural cooperative members could not operate their cooperatives continuously for an extended period of time. The study found that governance largely differed based on decision-making processes, stakeholder involvement, and leadership composition within the agricultural cooperatives. The study concluded that some technical and operational factors contribute to the sustainability of agricultural cooperatives, but most were found to be unsustainable. These are some of the challenges that agricultural cooperatives face: monitoring and evaluation, leadership issues, conflicts among members, member dishonesty, and member attrition. The study concludes by recommending regular monitoring and evaluation of operational and technical aspects to enhance the sustainability of agricultural cooperatives.Item Embargo Investigation of Coping Mechanisms on Food Systems Synergy Discrepancies Caused by Climate Change Among Young Agripreneurs in Musina Municipality of the Vhembe District(2026-05-19) Phaswana, Dakalo; Tshikororo, M.Climate change continuously disrupts agricultural stability by affecting all segments of the food system. Climate change determinants, such as rising temperatures, and extreme weather events, disrupt the food system, leading to discrepancies within the food system, including market volatility. The study aimed to investigate the coping mechanisms used by young agripreneurs in Musina municipality to address discrepancies in food systems synergy caused by climate change. The study sample consisted of 94 participants, and simple random sampling was used to select the sample. A structured questionnaire was used as a data collection tool. Descriptive statistics were employed to analyse the socio-economic characteristics of youth agripreneurs and determine the food system discrepancies that youth agripreneurs are facing. Multinomial logistic regression was employed to assess the impact of food system synergy discrepancies on the sustainability of youth agripreneurs. The study uncovered that the majority of youth agripreneurs were females and aged between 30 and 35; Furthermore, a significant number of youth agripreneurs possessed secondary education, followed by tertiary education. The study also revealed that major disruptions within the industry segment included an increase in maintenance costs, fluctuations in input prices, delayed supply, irregular input supply, and production inconsistency. Within the commerce segment, the major disruptions that youth agripreneurs highlighted were reduced supply quality, a lack of storage facilities, and a high perishability rate. In the trade segment, major disruptions included market price fluctuations, changes in consumer demand, and supply competition. The study also revealed that most discrepancies faced by youth agripreneurs severely affect their short-term sustainability, more so than their medium-term and long-term sustainability. The study also uncovered that most youth agripreneurs diversify their input suppliers, markets, and distribution channels as their coping mechanism. The study conclude that while most youth agripreneurs are predominantly females with moderate education, they employ more reactive than proactive coping mechanisms to mitigate climate induced impacts. The study recommends prioritising investments in input manufacturing facilities to stabilise the input prices.Item Open Access Effects of bio-fertilizer and phosphorus application on growth, yield, yield components, and phosphorus nutrition of cowpeas grown in two different soil types(2026-05-19) Mashele, Ntombifuthi Shane; Odhiambo, J. J. O.; Lusiba, S. G.Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp) is a leguminous crop that is native to Africa. This crop is cultivated for food, animal feed, and organic manure. Cowpea also contributes nitrogen (N) to the soil through the process of biological nitrogen fixation. Among other quality properties, cowpea leaves and grain contain essential nutrient elements and protein. The production of cowpeas, however, faces obstacles that reduce their productivity. This is despite the significant benefits cowpeas provide to people, animals, and soils. Cowpea productivity is limited by the lack of essential nutrient elements in croplands, particularly phosphorus (P). One way by which we could address low P in croplands is the addition of P-fertilizers. However, because cowpea crop is primarily grown by unemployed small-holder farmers and that P fertilizer is scarce, expensive, and inefficient, its ability to exhibit high growth and yield is limited by low P levels in soils. Alternatively, the availability of P in soils could be improved by adding phosphate solubilizing bacteria and inoculating with rhizobial inoculants. This study investigated the effects of rhizobial inoculants, P fertilizer, and phosphate-solubilizing bacteria addition on growth and yield-related parameters of cowpeas cultivated in soils with varying characteristics. Field experiments were conducted at the Agriculture Research Council - Tropical and Subtropical Crops (ARC-TSC) and the Sabie River area during the 2019/20 and 2020/21 summer seasons. ARC-TSC and Sabie River sites have different soil types. That is, the former has Hutton soils (sandy soil) while the latter has Glenrosa (loam-sandy soil) soil type. The field study was conducted using a 2 x 5 factorial experiment layout in a Randomised Complete Block Design (RCBD) replicated three times. The experimental design was done in two locations, namely Sabie River (Glenrosa soil type) and ARC (Hutton soil type). The said designs had five treatments, and these were Control (C) - no fertilizer, P, Bradyrhizobium + Phosphorus (BR + P), Bio-fertilizer + Phosphorus (BIO + P), and Bradyrhizobium + Bio-fertilizer + P (BR + P +BIO). The experiment was conducted under rain-fed conditions. During the flowering growth stage, biomass, including shoot, root, number of root nodules, and weight were determined. At harvest stage, shoot biomass, number of pods/plant, grain yield, shoot and grain P uptake, and available P in the rhizosphere were determined. Data were subjected to a normality test and analysed using a Genstat software, 24th edition program. Where significant differences within the treatments were observed, a comparison of mean was made using the least significant difference (LSD) method at a 5% significance interval. Both the soil type and treatment had significant (p ≤ 0.01) effect on all measured cowpea parameters during the 2019/2020 and 2020/21 planting seasons. Hutton soil at the ARC site produced significantly higher shoot and root dry matter, number and weight of nodules, number of pods, and grain yield than Glenrosa soil at Sabie River site. Results show that the addition of Phosphate solubilizing bacteria + Bradyrhizobium + Superphosphate significantly improved shoot dry matter, root dry matter, number of nodules, nodule dry weight, number of pods, and grain yield of cowpea relative to the control. However, BR+P+BIO significantly differed from BR+P and BIO+P in terms of the shoot dry and root dry matters, number of nodules, nodule dry weight, number of pods, and grain yield of cowpea in both soil types. Compared to the other treatments, BR+P+BIO application enhanced P nutrition of shoots and grains, and available P in rhizosphere soil. Study findings suggest that using bio-fertilizer and P application could be a viable strategy to improve crop yield and P nutrition in cowpea cultivation. Further research and field trials, however, might be necessary to optimize application rates and assess long-term effects on soil fertility, crop performance, and the importance of considering soil types in agricultural practices. These findings contribute valuable insights for sustainable agricultural practices to enhance cowpea production and ensure food security. This has implications for sustainable agricultural practices that enhance crop yields and nutrient use efficiency in cowpea production.Item Embargo Spatial analysis of risk mitigation for preservation of heritage value in Mapungubwe Historic Site(2026-05-19) Mabulela, Vuledzani; Moffat, F.; Gondo, T.This study investigated the spatial dynamics of risk mitigation for the preservation of heritage value within the Mapungubwe Historic Site, a World Heritage site of outstanding cultural and ecological significance in Vhembe, Limpopo Province, South Africa. The research aimed to identify and categorize risks threatening seven key heritage sites (K2, Schroda, Mapungubwe Hill, Pont Drift, Little Muck, Mona, and Welton), evaluate existing mitigation measures, assess the vulnerability of heritage resources, and develop strategies to enhance preservation outcomes. A mixed-methods approach grounded in positivist principles was adopted, integrating quantitative spatial analysis using Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and remote sensing with qualitative insights from secondary data sources utilizing the PRISMA technique. Hierarchical Cluster Analysis (HCA) and spatial vulnerability assessments were employed to analyze natural, ecological, and socio-economic risks, including erosion, climate variability, land-use changes, tourism pressures, and human interference. The evaluation of existing mitigation measures revealed strengths in adaptive management, zoning, cultural heritage protection, and biodiversity conservation, but also highlighted gaps such as limited community participation, resource constraints, reactive response mechanisms, and insufficient integration of monitoring data into decision-making. The findings indicated that vulnerability patterns were spatially heterogeneous, with certain sites exhibiting higher susceptibility to environmental and anthropogenic pressures. Based on these results, enhanced risk mitigation strategies were proposed, including proactive climate adaptation measures, strengthened community engagement, technology-driven monitoring (GIS), dynamic visitor management, and diversified funding mechanisms. The study contributed to a clearer understanding of how spatial analysis informed targeted heritage preservation strategies, providing a framework for safeguarding Mapungubwe’s cultural and ecological assets while promoting sustainable management practices.Item Embargo Gendered Mobility in Public Urban Spaces: A Case Study of Polokwane Municipality, Limpopo Province, South Africa(2026-05-19) Madzivha, Mashudu Cecilia; Chakwizira, James; Ingwani, EmaculateAlthough the benefits of a gender-inclusive approach to mobility have been increasingly recognised globally, this topic has not received sufficient attention, particularly in secondary cities located in predominantly rural areas. It is of great significance that both urban planning theory and practice integrate gender issues in the planning and designing of cities, given their gendered needs and aspirations. This study investigates the gendered dimensions of mobility in public urban spaces, focusing on Polokwane city in Limpopo, South Africa. Guided by feminist urbanism and Law’s analytical framework on gender and mobility, the study adopts a mixed-methods approach combining 167 household questionnaire survey, key informant interviews, focus group discussions and observation. The research examines how urban design elements shape gendered mobility experiences and further evaluates the extent to which municipal, provincial, and national policy frameworks incorporate gender-sensitive planning principles. Findings confirm that urban design in Polokwane shapes gendered mobility experiences. Women experience higher levels of mobility constraints linked to availability, accessibility, acceptability, and affordability challenges as revealed by the Gendered Mobility Index (GMI). The GMI scores indicate that men recorded higher scores measured at 0.69, while women recorded lower composite scores at 0.68, confirming statistically significant gender disparities in overall mobility experience. Policy analysis reveals that although gender equality is articulated in national frameworks such as the NDP and National Land Transport Act, implementation at the municipal level remains poor. This study makes both theoretical and practical contributions. It advances the application of feminist urbanism within the South African secondary city context and considers GMI as a measurable planning tool for diagnosing gender inequality. The implications are clear: adopting a gender-transformative planning framework, and policies such as IDP, MSDF, MITP and others will directly enhance equitable access to the city, improve safety outcomes, and accelerate progress toward gender inclusive urban development.