Theses and Dissertations
Permanent URI for this collection
Browse
Recent Submissions
Item Embargo Phytoremediation of metals from Klein Letabs Gold Mine Tailings, Limpopo Province, South Africa(2025-09-05) Munyai, Phumudzo Gift; Mundalamo, H. R.; Ogola, J. S.Phytoremediation is an environmentally friendly technique that uses green plants to reduce, remove or extract environmental toxins, primarily those of anthropogenic origin, to restore sites to a condition suitable for private or public use. Its efforts have largely focused on the use of plants to accelerate the degradation of organic contaminants with root rhizosphere microorganisms or remove hazardous metals from the soils and water. Phytoremediation of contaminated sites is relatively inexpensive and aesthetically pleasing to the public compared to alternate remediation strategies which involve excavation or chemical in-situ stabilization. The Giyani Greenstone Belt is known for its gold mineralisation, and has been exploited at Klein Letaba, Louis Moore, Birthday, Golden Osprey and Fumani mines. All these mines are closed but the metals within their respective tailing’s dams can cause environmental and health problems. This study focuses on the Klein Letaba Tailings Dam which has metals such as Lead (Pb), Zinc (Zn), Copper (Cu), Arsenic (As), Nickel (Ni) and Cadmium (Cd) and traces of Gold (Au), which pose significant risks due to historical mining activities. Fieldwork involved geobotanical mapping, geochemical surveys, and pot culture experimental design. A total of 80 plants and tailings samples were randomly collected due to their dominance and abundance on the tailings dam. Tailings samples were collected at the same location as the plant samples. The samples were analysed at the University of Venda, Department of Earth Sciences, Faculty of Science, Engineering and Agriculture and Madzivhandila College of Agriculture. Pot-culture experimental design setup was conducted to evaluate the growth rate and metal uptake and accumulation by hyperaccumulating plant species at the South African National Biodiversity Institute (Thohoyandou Botanical Garden Nursery). The setup involved the use of 14 flower trays. This was done to mimic the Klein Letaba tailings natural environment. The duration of the experiment varied with the growth rate of the different plant species with an estimated period of 7 months for all plants followed by harvesting for four months. Metal concentrations of the plants and tailings were determined using inductively coupled plasma-optical emissions spectrometry (ICP-OES). Geochemical data analysis was done using Microsoft Excel, Arc GIS and Simple Kriging (SK) software to evaluate the metal distribution and plant metal uptake potential on different parts of the plant species at Klein Letaba tailings dam. The study identified three dominant native plant species: Combretum imberbe, Cynodon dactylon and Sporobolus africanus, which are naturally adapted to the tailings dam. Results revealed significant metal uptake, particularly in the roots of Combretum imberbe (CI), and Sporobolus africanus (SA). The metal concentrations of Pb, Ni, As, Cr, Zn and Cu in the tailings dam were found to be high, with a maximum of 11886 ppm, 2049 ppm, 1276 ppm, 1271 ppm, 695 ppm and 140 ppm respectively. The pot-culture experimental set-up constituted 4 harvests where Combretum imberbe demonstrated metal uptake for Cu, Pb and Zn, with concentrations in roots exceeding 7 ppm for Cu and 6 ppm for Pb. Sporobolus africanus showed notable accumulation of Cr, As and Pb with concentrations of 7.8 ppm, 6.6 ppm and 6.5 ppm respectively. Metal uptake was generally higher in the roots compared to the shoot and leaves, indicating that this species primarily acts as a stabiliser rather than a translocator of metals. The potential economic recoverability of metals from native plant species, such as Combretum imberbe, Sporobolus africanus, and Cynodon dactylon, was reviewed. The study identified Combretum imberbe as the most promising phytoremediator, recording high Zn, Fe and Cu uptake in the leaves and shoots, indicating potential for above-ground harvesting. Accumulation of Cu (~5 ppm), Zn (~8 ppm), and Fe (~10 ppm) make it viable for extracting economically valuable metals making it a potential candidate for phytomining. Combretum imberbe and Sporobolus africanus exhibited complementary potential for Zn recovery and stabilisation of Mn and Fe. Furthermore, the low concentrations of Cd and As uptake across all species suggest limited risk of secondary environmental contamination. Metals like Pb, Cu, Ni, Zn and Cd are economically valuable due to their market demand and can also be extracted by environmental remediation. Lead, for example, is currently valued at about $1.95 per kilogram, copper, $4.83 per kilogram, nickel, $7.11 per kilogram, manganese $1.55 per kilogram and zinc, $2.82 per kilogram. This research highlights the potential of native plant species to remediate and stabilise tailings environments while offering economically viable solutions through recovery of valuable metals. This environmentally friendly remediation strategy aligns with the global sustainability goals, fostering safer ecosystems and providing opportunities for rehabilitated land use in mining affected areas. Therefore, this remediation strategy is not only applicable in the studied site but can also be applied in other similar studies.Item Embargo Statistical analysis of rainfall and groundwater trends and their spatial variations in the Mopani District, South Africa(2025-09-05) Nkuzana, Nkateko Mumsy; Makungo, Rachel; Nkuna, TinyikoThis study analysed rainfall and groundwater level trends and variations in the Mopani District, Limpopo of South Africa to guide sustainable water resource strategies, improve decision- making, drought assessments, and climate adaptation strategies. The methodology involved a two-phase approach, starting with data collection through desktop research and fieldwork in the Mopani District. Historical groundwater level and rainfall data were analysed using techniques like the double mass curve, Mann-Kendall test, Sen’s slope estimator, quantile regression, and geospatial analysis with QGIS software to identify trends and correlations. Rigorous quality control measures ensured data integrity, which was confirmed through double-mass curve analysis showing a strong correlation between monitoring stations (R² = 0.9995). The Thiessen polygon method was utilized to select rainfall stations based on their proximity to groundwater monitoring points, emphasizing the hydrological connectivity of the area. The study found that several boreholes, such as Bordeaux Julesburg, Rubbervale, State Land Vuheli, and Nghalume, Skwinyani, Caledone Ndengeza, Nkoankoa, Doorhoek, and Worcester, with Sen’s slope values ranging from -0.049 to -0.547 m/year, showed significant decreases in groundwater levels, indicating potential depletion or over-extraction. Monitoring borehole stations in Namakgale, Paardedood, and Doornhoek with slope values ranging from 0.0743 to 0.1255 m/year also showed non-significant decreasing trends. However, boreholes like Mica and Silwane Nyakalane with slopes of 1.63 m/year and 1.69 m/year exhibited significant increases, likely due to improved recharge conditions influenced by factors such as rainfall, agricultural activities, or other climatic factors. The increasing trend in Haenersburg was not statistically significant (p = 0.960), suggesting random variation rather than a reliable upward trend. The trend analysis of annual rainfall data from 2006 to 2020 at Giyani, Tzaneen Westfalia Estate, and Hoedspruit stations revealed decreasing trends, with negative Sen’s slope values of -13.504, -8.626, and -18.452, respectively. However, these reductions were not statistically significant, suggesting that these reductions may be due to natural variability rather than long-term climate changes. Quantile regression analysis of annual groundwater levels across 16 monitoring borehole stations indicated variability in trends, with negative slope coefficients reflecting decreasing groundwater levels for stations like Bordeaux Julesburg and Rubbervale Station. Overall, 75% (12 out of 16) of boreholes exhibited statistically significant decreasing trends influenced by factors such as over extraction rates and recharge variability. In Hoedspruit, the trends at quantiles 0.1 (p-value = 0.010) and 0.2 (p-value = 0.031) were significant, indicating a noteworthy decline in lower rainfall values. This study reveals significant trends in rainfall and groundwater levels across various monitoring stations, aligning with previous research in Mopani District, Limpopo Province, and South Africa. It emphasizes the need for ongoing monitoring to understand water resource management implications and address challenges related to climate variability and water availability in the region.Item Embargo Mineralogical and chemical characterisation of terracotta clays and their application for dyes removal from aqueous solution(2025-09-05) Mhlarhi, Rirhandzu; Edokpayi, J, N.; Ayinde, W. B.The continuous discharge of untreated or semi-treated dye effluents is one of the global leading causes of surface water quality degradation. The present research aimed at investigating the potential of terracotta clay, herein termed (RTC) and its composite with zinc oxide nanoparticles (RTC@ZnONPs) to effectively sequester cationic (Methylene Blue) and anionic (Congo Red) dyes from aqueous solution. The mineralogical and chemical characteristics of the clay prior to sorption were investigated using Fourier Transform Infrared (FT-IR), X-ray fluorescence (XRF), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Scanning Electron Microscope coupled with Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS), and Brunauer Emmett Teller (BET). The adsorbents’ point of zero charge was also determined. The clays’ characterisation revealed that it was crystalline and mesoporous. Effects of variations in sorption time, adsorbent dosage, initial adsorbate concentration, pH, temperature and water chemistry were investigated in batch experiments. The optimum pH for MB adsorption was identified as 10, and 2 for that of CR. The pseudo second order model provided the best fit for the kinetic data, while Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms justified the state of equilibrium data. Both the Langmuir and Freundlich isotherm models provided explanations for the adsorption processes. Thermodynamics investigations revealed that the reactions were viable, spontaneous and exothermic. After five cycles of adsorption/desorption for the sequestration of both MB and CR dyes from aqueous solutions, the composite RTC@ZnONPs demonstrated outstanding reusability (88.75%) and (61.43%), respectively. The current study showed that (RTC@ZnONPs) can be employed for the removal of other dyes such as Crystal Violet, Indigo Carmine and Methyl Orange from wastewater. Moreover, both RTC and its composite (RTC@ZnONPs) are ideal for the economical and environmentally acceptable removal of MB and CR from aqueous solution.Item Embargo Teaching Mathematics in the Foundation Phase in Erkurhuleni South District schools, Gauteng Province, Republic South Africa(2025-09-05) Ligege, Humbulani; Sinthumule, D. A.; Cassim, H. B.Underperformance of learners in Mathematics in South Africa is a burning issue. Learners in Mathematics do not perform at a level that would allow them to progress to the next grade and this often impacts the Grade 12 results significantly. As a result, it has become evident that the critical problem was the Foundation Phase, where a learner did not get a strong foundation during the early stage of Mathematics. To address the needs of learners, educators with skills and knowledge must fill the gap by identifying the barriers of learners in Mathematics at the Foundation Phase. The study adopted a qualitative approach. Educators in Foundation Phase training covers all subjects, namely Mathematics, Life Skills, Home Language and Additional Language. Some educators may lack interest, knowledge, methods or skills in teaching all the subjects. The educators’ lack of interest may affect learners’ performance because the educator may not do proper lesson planning and lesson presentation. The study employed Skemp's Theory of Relational and Instrumental Learning.The researcher has elicited the views of Foundation Phase educators on the challenges of teaching Mathematics through a case study design, in which two primary schools in the Ekurhuleni South-East Circuit had been involved. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with a sample of eight educators, two members of School Management Teams, and two curriculum advisors from district support educators in Mathematics to establish the challenges they encounter when teaching Mathematics in the Foundation Phase. The challenges encountered in the teaching of Mathematics vary across schools and often range from knowledge of pedagogical content, skill, professional training, attitudes, school environment, language, and background. The study found that, educators and learners would benefit greatly from the use of technology in the classroom, furthermore when learners receive the best instruction possible via the use of digital technology and given the fullest attention possible, they would inspire to reach their greatest potential. The study suggested further research and recommendations regarding educators, the schools and School Management Teams (SMTs), parents, and facilitators from the district.Item Embargo Groundwater quality and human health-risk assessment in health-care facilities around Vhembe District, Limpopo, South Africa(2025-09-05) Sadiki, Musiiwa Patricia; Edokpayi, Joshua N.; Street, ReneeWater quality has been associated with health outcomes globally. This research assessed the physicochemical and microbial quality of groundwater in health care facilities around Vhembe District, Limpopo Province, South Africa. For this study, nineteen sampling locations were chosen from among the many local municipalities in the Vhembe District, and sampling was conducted throughout both the rainy and dry seasons. During the various seasons, physicochemical characteristics like turbidity, salinity, pH, EC, and TDS varied as follows: (35.46-1780 μS/cm (dry), 126.38-1468 μS/cm (wet), 25.5-1267 mg/L (dry), 67.5-1195 mg/L (wet), 7-8.5 (dry), 7-9 (wet), 0-4.5 NTU (dry), 0-6 NTU (wet), and 42.31-899 ppm (dry), 37.28-706.5 ppm (wet) respectively with some samples exceeding the recommended limit standard as per SANS guideline. Total coliform levels ranged between 2-90 cfu/100 mL in the dry season and 1-128 cfu/100 mL in the wet season. E. coli varied between 0-13 cfu/100 mL) in the dry and 0-39 cfu/100mL in the wet, respectively. Major anions such as SO4, NO2, PO4, recorded levels within the recommended limit of the South African National Standards (SANS), however, anions such as F, Cl, and NO3 in some of the samples did not comply. Major cations (Na, Mg, K, and Ca) did not comply for some samples except for K which complied in all samples. The following metals - Al, V, Cr, Mn, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Se, Cd, Sb, Hg, Pb, and U - were within the recommended limit except for Fe which was above the recommended limit as per SANS 241. According to the water quality index (WQI), during the wet season, 16.66% of the water was extremely poor, 38.88% was poor and 44.44% was good. 16.66% was poor, 72.22% was decent, and 11.11% were excellent during the dry season. The Piper Diagram revealed three hydro-chemical facies for both seasons. Calcium chloride water type (72.22 % in wet, and 83.33 % in dry season), mixed water type (5.5 %) and sodium chloride water type (22.22 % in wet and 11.11% in dry season). The Durov Plot revealed that most samples were in the ion exchange zone and very few were in the mixing zone or dissolution. The study area's groundwater Gibbs diagram, for both seasons demonstrated that evaporation mostly regulated the hydrogeochemical processes. The average dosage of E. coli ranged from 0 – 3.16 and 0 - 0.24 for wet and dry respectively, therefore, chances of getting infection daily, was in the range of 0 – 7.6 % for wet and 0 – 6.7 % in the dry season. The probability of getting infection annually ranged as from 0 – 100%. Water from health-care facilities around Vhembe District should be treated before consumption.Item Embargo Wasted Water Quality, Economic Valuation and Development of a Water Loss Framework at the University of Venda(2025-09-05) Netshitanini, Mahanyele; Edokpayi, J. N.; Adeeyo, A. O.The study investigates the extent of water wastage and its management at the University of Venda, by assessing several factors related to water losses, costs, quality, and the development of a water-loss management framework. The study objectives were achieved through questionnaires which were distributed among students, staff, and maintenance personnel, to gather data on water usage and management. Field observations identified key areas where water was being wasted, especially in places like student residences. Water samples were collected from identified hotspots, with measurements taken based on amounts and time to calculate the rate of water wastage. Water quality tests included physical, chemical, microbial, and heavy metal analyses, to determine whether that the water quality met the South African National Standards (SANS) and those of World Health Organisation (WHO). The results demonstrated that water was wasted most during students’ residency periods (when students were not on recess). A total of 2,511,351 litres per year were lost during the academic terms, while 52,710 litres per year were wasted during the recess periods. The estimated financial loss due to water wastage was R 50,227 during student residency periods and R 1,054 during recess, based on water tariffs from the Thulamela Municipality. The quality of the wasted water was found to meet SANS and WHO standards, with tests confirming the water was safe in terms of being free from microbial content and chemical composition. Based on this picture, a monitoring application was developed to help track and manage water wastage. The app automatically captures geolocations of water wastage on the campus and allows individuals to report incidents of water wastage by submitting photos or short videos (15-30 seconds). The study highlights the extent of water wastage occurring at the University of Venda, especially when students are present, and proposes a technological solution through the monitoring app to help reduce these losses. Additionally, the water wasted was found to be of good quality, therefore, representing financial and resource concerns.Item Embargo Mode of Occurrence and Origin of Iron Ore Deposits of Ga-Nchabeleng Area, Sekhukhune District, Limpopo Province, South Africa(2025-09-05) Maponya, Julia Mapula; Mundalamo, H. R.; Ogola, J. S.The study area falls under the Sekhukhune District Municipality of the Limpopo province within Rustenburg layered suite of the Bushveld Igneous complex. The aim of the study was to investigate the petrological and mineralogical characteristics of gabbronorite and iron ore as well as to establish the geological environment of the ore formation so as to ascertain the mode of occurrence and origin of the iron ore deposit. Geological mapping was conducted so as to confirm the host rocks and establish the relationship between the host rocks and orebodies. The map revealed the distribution of the rocks within the study area and the geological setting of the iron ore. The iron ore was found to be localized within gabbronorite. Iron ore occurred as veins, veinlets, stockworks, stringers, and finger-like structures. The geological structures acted as conduits for the ferruginous melts that finally formed the iron ore. Petrographic study revealed the presence of feldspar, mainly plagioclase in gabbronorite, and minor concentration of oxides mainly magnetite. Some rock specimens revealed a high concentration of magnetite especially those located near the host rock-orebody contact. Reflected light microscopy was done to establish the mineralogy of iron ore and to ascertain the relationship of the ore minerals. The main ore minerals were magnetite and hematite with minor ilmenite. The XRD results revealed high content of magnetite (92 %), followed by hematite (61%), then ilmenite (12%). The XRF results revealed gabbronorite with minimum and maximum FeO3 wt% of 1.31% and 44.22% respectively, while minimum and maximum values of FeO3 wt% in magnetite ore samples were found to be 43.38% and 54.55% respectively with an average value of 52.36%. The magnetite registered high concentration values of Zn (221 ppm), Ni (225 ppm), Co (163 ppm), Cr (503 ppm) and V (8981 ppm). The study concluded that the iron ore is hosted by intermediate to felsic igneous rocks which were found to be gabbronorite. Ore bodies formed stockworks that were randomly oriented as veins, veinlets, and stringers associated with fractional crystallization of the layered complexes. The magnetite ore within the study area was of good grade with average values above 50% and rich in V, Cr, Ni, Zn and Co. The study recommends further detailed exploration of iron ore in the area, applying techniques such as geophysical methods and borehole drilling leading to resource evaluation.Item Embargo Assessment of potential health risks of domestic water sources in Matatani Village, Limpopo Province, South Africa(2025-09-05) Ndou, Pfunzo; Makungo, R.; Malima, T. P.Poor water quality is associated with adverse health outcomes worldwide. In many developing countries, access to clean and safe water remains limited, forcing individuals to depend on available water sources despite their poor quality. This study evaluated the potential human health risks associated with domestic water sources at Matatani Village, Limpopo Province, South Africa. Field observations were conducted to identify the available water sources and the potential contaminants present for each source. Water samples were collected during both wet and dry seasons from the primary sources used by the residents, including boreholes, springs, and a river. Rainwater samples from various roof types were also collected during the rainfall season. The physical parameters including pH, electrical conductivity (EC), and total dissolved solids (TDS) were measured using standardized multi-meter. Turbidity was measured using turbidity meter. Microbiological parameters such as total coliforms and Escherichia coli (E.coli) were analyzed using membrane filtration method. Metals such as sodium (Na), magnesium (Mg), potassium (K), iron (Fe), lead (Pb), manganese (Mn), cadmium (Cd), arsenic (As), aluminium (Al), copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) were analyzed using inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrophotometer (ICP-OES) . The non-metals such as chloride (Cl), fluoride (F), phosphate (PO4) and sulphate (SO4) were analyzed using the DR 3900 Laboratory spectrophotometer. Health risk assessment was conducted for non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risk through ingestion based on the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) method. The pH for groundwater and river water was within the recommended guideline. The turbidity and TDS were above the guidelines for river and groundwater. For rainwater water, the EC and TDS were within the recommended guidelines while the turbidity was above the recommended guideline. The total coliform and E.coli were both above the recommended guidelines for the majority of the samples. Metals such as As, Mn, Cd, Pb, Zn, Mn, Al, and Fe were above the recommended guidelines for surface and groundwater and rainwater, respectively. They metals ranged from 0.60 to 6.88, 1.54 to 6.51, 0 to 16.61, 1.63 to 7.63, 1.54 to 10.59, 4.22 to 5.74, 0.36 to 7.86 for As, Mn, Cd, Pb, Zn, Mn, Al, and Fe, for all sources respectively. The presence of these metals in water sources can cause adverse effects on human health. Non-metals such as from 0.1 to 5.7 and 0 to 89 for F and SO4, they were within the recommended guidelines for groundwater, river water, and rainwater. The non-carcinogenic hazard index (HI) ranged from 4.20 to 18.3 for river and groundwater while it ranged from 0.52 to 3.11 for rainwater for both adults and children, respectively. The HI for river and groundwater was greater than 1 for children and adults indicating significant health risk. The HI for children only exceeded 1 for rainwater meaning that the children are at risk. The carcinogenic risk for Pb, Cd and As ranged between 0.09 to 4.26 and 0.09 to 0.96 for groundwater, river water, and rainwater for adults and children, respectively. Identified microbial health risks include nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, cholera and typhoid fever. These findings highlighted the severe risk of diseases for the residents of Matatani Village. They also confirmed that water in Matatani Village is unsafe for human use. It is recommended that residents have to use the sources of water such as municipal water which consistently show lower contamination levels and boil water before use to minimize contamination risk. Residents have to minimize pollution by implementing stricter regulations to reduce the discharge of various elements into the environment.Item Embargo Hydrological modelling for estimating water availability for irrigation supply in selected schemes in Nzhelele Area(2025-09-05) Mbaimbai, Vhahangwele; Makungo, R.; Ndiritu, J. G.South Africa is one of the driest countries in the world, and its smallholder irrigation schemes - particularly in semi-arid regions like Nzhelele in Limpopo Province - are under growing pressure due to water scarcity and climate variability. Many of these schemes suffer from poor monitoring of water inflows and a lack of reliable data on crop irrigation needs. This study aimed to quantify irrigation water availability and determine whether current water resources can meet the crop water demands of three smallholder schemes - Mandiwana, Raliphaswa, and Mamuhohi. Objectives included simulating streamflow using hydrological modelling, estimating crop water requirements, and identifying which crops are sustainable under existing water supply conditions. The Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) was used to simulate streamflow from 1987 to 2014 using daily hydrometeorological data. Calibration and validation were performed over two distinct periods: 1991–2000 and 2001–2009. Reference evapotranspiration (ETo) was calculated using the Hargreaves equation due to limited data, and crop coefficients (Kc) were used to estimate daily water needs for maize, sweet potato, groundnuts, and green beans. A 60% conveyance efficiency was applied to assess actual deliverable water. The model showed that maize and sweet potato had manageable water demands 540 mm and 475 mm in the dry season, respectively, while groundnuts and green beans had higher peak requirements that exceeded available supply. The SWAT model performed well, the R2, NSE and PBIAS values for calibration and validation ranged from 0.78, 0.56, and 7.7%, and 0.60, 0.56, and -8.3%, respectively. These findings can guide crop selection and water allocation, offering practical insights for improving smallholder irrigation planning in water-limited environments.Item Embargo Evaluation of strata conditions and performance of support systems of the Emerald Shaft Gold Mine in Gauteng Province of South Africa(2025-09-05) Mphaphuli, Sathiel; Amponsah-Dacosta, Francis; Mhlongo, Sphiwe EmmanuelThe creation of underground excavations causes disturbances in the rock mass, leading to geotechnical uncertainty and increased risk of fall of ground or backbreak. The incompetency of the rock mass, high tensile fractures, and concentration of horizontal virgin and mining-induced stresses pose significant threats to both safety and production, highlighting the need for effective strata control measures. This study aimed to evaluate the strata conditions and performance of support systems of the Emerald Shaft Gold Mine to ensure long-term stability. The objectives of the study included reviewing the mine design and layout, determining geological conditions and their influence on the rock strata, examining the performance of the support systems used in the raise and production stopes of the Emerald Shaft Gold Mine., and recommending appropriate strategies for strata control. A comprehensive geotechnical investigation was conducted at the Emerald Shaft Gold Mine to characterize the rock mass and inform mine design. The study applied a multi-disciplinary approach including field profiling, geological and geotechnical mapping, field test and laboratory analysis, field observations, and analytical and numerical modelling. The investigation involved a detailed analysis of rock mechanic data, geological conditions, and raise and stope support systems to evaluate the stability of the mine. The study revealed complex geological conditions, variable rock competency, and distinct mechanical properties. The rock mass quality was compromised by regional geological features, such as dykes and faults. The findings highlighted the importance of site-specific characterization, comprehensive support design, and targeted support measures to ensure safe and efficient mining operations. The study also identified areas prone to rockfalls, fall of ground incidents, and stope instability, emphasizing the need for robust support design and regular monitoring. The study concluded that a tailored support design approach, considering tendon performance, ground conditions, and stress loading, is essential to ensure optimal ground stability and prevent rockfalls. The recommended support measures include the installation of grouted dowels, pre-stressed elongates, and fibre-reinforced shotcrete. Regular monitoring and maintenance of support systems are crucial to ensure their effectiveness and prevent accidents. The study's findings and recommendations provide valuable insights for mine design, support strategies, and safety protocols at the Emerald Shaft Gold Mine, and can be applied to similar mining operations. This study contributed significantly to the understanding of strata conditions and support systems in Emerald Shaft Gold Mine. The research provided new insights into the complex geological conditions and variable rock competency of the mine, highlighting the importance of site-specific characterization and tailored support design. The findings of the study and recommendations offered valuable contributions to the existing knowledge on strata control and support systems, providing a framework for improving mine safety and efficiency. Specifically, this research demonstrated the effectiveness of a multi-disciplinary approach in evaluating rock mass quality and designing optimal support systems and highlighted the need for regular monitoring and maintenance to ensure the effectiveness of support measures.Item Open Access Assessing sustainable water, energy and food nexus smart innovations, technologies and practices in Luvuvhu and Nzhelele River catchments areas, Vhembe District Municipality, Limpopo province, South Africa.(2025-09-05) Mphaphuli, Phindulo; Makungo, R.; Madzivhandila, T.; Musetsho, K. D.The water-energy-food (WEF) nexus aids in comprehending the complex and ever-evolving connections between these three essential resources. Climate change and slow economic growth are triggering an increase in pressure on global WEF resources. These present an increase in levels of trade-offs and conflicts among the three resources. The implementation of the WEF nexus can improve resource security and promote sustainable development. However, its widespread adoption has been limited due to the absence of concrete strategies for its practical application. This study assessed the status of WEF nexus smart technologies, innovation and practices in Luvuvhu and Nzhelele River Catchments Areas, Limpopo Province, South Africa. Subsequently, face-to-face surveys were undertaken from 9 July to 30 November 2022 for individual households and focus group discussions (FGD) were conducted within communities under the Luvuvhu River Catchment Areas (Sambandou, Malavuwe and Tshakhuma); and Nzhelele River Catchment Areas (Siloam, Phadzima and Khalavha). A random sampling technique was utilized to select 93 households from a total of 180 targeted households. Key Informant Interviews (KII) were conducted with representatives from the local Department of Water and Sanitation, Eskom, the local Department of Agriculture and Rural Development, as well as local radio stations. During these interviews, data was collected through interview-administered questionnaires. The data obtained from the questionnaires was analyzed using IBM SPSS Statistics version 29, which facilitated the generation of response frequencies. Additionally, the ArcGIS Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW) spatial interpolation method was employed for spatial analysis. The results indicated that the sustainability of the water-energy-food (WEF) nexus depends on the resilience of each resource individually as well as within their respective sectors. The use of water and food smart innovations and practices was found to be slightly higher in the Nzhelele River Catchments Areas than it is in the Luvuvhu River Catchment Areas, with 55.9% (n= 55) and 38.7% (n= 36) of the respondents within the Nzhelele area and 47.3% (n= 44) and 31.2% (n= 29) in the Luvuvhu area using water and food smart innovations and practices, respectively. Moreover, the use of energy innovations and practices was found to be slightly lower in the Nzhelele area s (53.8%; n= 50) than it is in the Luvuvhu areas (59.1%; n= 55). However, most of the respondents in both study areas did not understand how WEF nexus works, whereas some practiced it based on the little knowledge they got from schools, workplaces and the internet. Results from assessing the influence of hydrology on the use of WEF Nexus smart innovations, technologies and practices showed that hydrology is a foundational element in the WEF Nexus as hydrological factors such as water quality, temperature variability and annual rainfall are very crucial in WEF Nexus, influencing the use of smart innovations and practices that could in turn improve the well-being of residents, the productivity of local agricultural and food systems while enhancing the sustainable management of water, energy, and food resources. The study results show that the use of water, energy and food in areas around Luvuvhu River Catchment and Nzhelele River Catchment are significantly impacted by hydrology. It was also noted that a significant percentage (90%) of the respondents reported that they depend on agriculture for survival, which is highly affected by hydrological conditions. Knowledge about the WEF nexus needs to be transferred to people in rural areas through awareness and education. The results of this study can serve as a useful reference for developing regions to improve management of resources, facilitate sustainable development, and fill the existing knowledge gaps towards understanding how promising the WEF nexus innovations and practices are, and how these can be realized at the local community and household levels. Thus, potentially reducing the shortage of WEF resources.Item Embargo Use and management of energy resources from Water, Energy, and Food (WEF) nexus perspective: The case of Vhembe District Municipality (VDM), Limpopo Province(2025-09-05) Mudau, Mulalo; Makungo, R.; Volenzo, T. E.Water, Energy, and Food (WEF) are necessity resources required by human beings for sustenance, social, and economic development. Energy is at the centre of the WEF nexus due to its dual role as a driver of economic activity and the largest contributor to global warming and climate change risks. In response, most countries following the 2015 Paris Agreement on climate action have adopted renewable energy (herein referred to as smart energy practices and innovations) policies to mitigate the adverse impacts of energy on climate change, as well as address health and environmental crises. Such measures and policies are also pursued to enhance energy security and economic prosperity. Though South Africa is one of the countries that has adopted an ambitious renewable energy policy, there is a paucity of information on factors influencing the adoption of renewable based energy resources and potential outcomes at the household level, where most of the envisioned policy objectives are expected to be pursued and realised. The current study was conducted in the Nzhelele and Luvuvhu River catchment areas in the Vhembe District Municipality (VDM) of Limpopo Province. A mixed methods approach was used to gather information on energy access and use at the household level through household questionnaires and triangulated through key informant interviews (KII) and Focus Group Discussions (FGDs). Economic analysis of existing energy practices and innovations was analysed using a Net Present Value (NPV) analysis, and environmental performance assessed through Partial Life Cycle Analysis (LCA). Analysis of data was done in Excel and IBMR SPSSR Statistics version 28 based on weight estimation and multinomial logistic regression approaches. Biomass and mains electricity are the main sources of energy, with energy stacking being a universal strategy observed in majority of households. Renewable energy sources such as solar energy are rarely used at the household level. Approximately 62% of the respondents cited lack of knowledge (inadequate access to information) on the smart energy technologies and their availability as the most significant limiting factor in their adoption. This was followed by poor reliability of smart energy technologies at about 53%, cost saving potential at about 45%, and availability of finance at about 48%. For those in agriculture, market access at about 21% and return on investment at about 19% is an important consideration in the choice of smart energy technologies. Ease of availability and cost of energy type at 35% and 39% respectively were the main factors likely to influence the choice of smart energy innovations. Cost of alternatives at about 13%, load shedding at about 14 %, and socio-economic lockins i.e., culture and past policies at about 12% of the respondents. Employment and to a greater extent, total household income status, emerge as the only factor that significantly (P< 0.005) influences the adoption of smart energy innovations. The use of biomass and LPG are significant predictors of reliability in existing energy innovation. Though renewable energy sources such as solar can reduce environmental footprints, the initial cost and intermittent supply due to weather constrain their adoption. The adverse impact of non-renewable resources such as biomass on health and environment are inherent through higher emission levels. The same applies to coal generated electricity. However, the fact that such sources are cheaper and easily available due to economic lockins also constrains the transition to cleaner energy sources at household level. In conclusion, WEF approach can inform sustainability transition and energy security with economic empowerment and awareness creation, including access to higher education and income earning opportunities being more likely to mediate the transition to smart energy at household level.Item Embargo Spatial variation of historical and future seasonal rainfall trends in the Luvuvhu River Catchment, Limpopo Province, South Africa(2025-09-05) Dzaga, A; Makungo, R.; Nkuna, T. R.This study focused on determining the spatial variation of historic and future seasonal rainfall trends in the Luvuvhu River Catchment. Trend analysis studies hold considerable scientific and practical importance in assessing hydrological hazards and soil erosion monitoring. Rainfall trends are a valuable tool for assessing the impacts of climate change and offering guidance on how to mitigate its negative effects on agriculture. Rainfall in the Luvuvhu River Catchment exhibits significant variability. Alterations in precipitation patterns and trends can lead to an increase in the frequency of extreme events such as drought and floods. Rainfall data was sourced from the Department of Water and Sanitation, South African Weather Services and the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project six. The Innovative Trend Analysis (ITA) and Auto-regressive Moving Average (ARIMA) were used to compute historical and future seasonal rainfall trends for a period of about 135 years from 1950 to 2085. The standard deviation, coefficient of variation, seasonality index and kriging were used to determine spatial variations. The ITA and ARIMA results showed dominantly decreasing trends during summer and all other seasons for both historical and future rainfall data. The results from the ITA method are in agreement with the results of the ARIMA method. The homogeneity test using the Standard Normal Homogeineity Test and the Pettit test was done for the rainfall data. The Standardised Precipitation Index (SPI) was used to check the possible causes of the changes during dry and wet seasons. The historic results of the standard deviation range from 11 in winter to 463 in summer, the coefficient of variation from 0.401 to 1.037 and the seasonality index from 0.02 in winter to 2.358 in summer. The future results indicate that the standard deviation ranges from 2 in winter to 86 in summer, the coefficient of variation from 0.286 to 4.120 and the seasonality index from 0.09 in winter to 3.950 in summer. The kriging results show high variability in the north east side of the catchment where stations such as the Pafuri and Punda Maria are situated for both the historic future seasonal trends . The breaks or changes from the homogeneity tests occurred in the years 1962, 1975, 1979, 1982, 1986, 1987,1996, 2005, 2008 and 2012. The results of the two methods compared fairly well. The SPI results indicated that causes of changes were indicated by breaks periods of flooding and periods of drought on the data that occurred in the years 1975, 2000,1990, 2046, 2036, 2076, 2043 and 2073. Trend analysis and forecasting for the catchment using satellite data is recommended in order to compare the results of the current study and other studies that have been done in the catchment. The results in this study indicate that there is a dominant decreasing trend in the catchment, it is therefore recommended that a plan be developed for efficient and sustainable water use, localized climate adaptation strategies be developed and further research be done expanding on the current study.Item Embargo The assessment of water supply system efficiency and water quality in Standerton, Lekwa Municipality, Mpumalanga, South Africa(2025-09-05) Shikwambana, Pamlah Patience; Makungo, Rachel; Sengani, BenMost municipalities in South Africa face significant challenges in managing their water treatment plants effectively, often due to a lack of technical expertise, insufficient staffing and poor maintenance planning. These result in poor water quality, frequent supply interruptions and failure to comply with regulatory standards. Furthermore, difficulties in retaining skilled personnel and misallocation of resources exacerbate the problem, exposing communities to health risks and unreliable water services that undermine sustainable water supply efforts. This study evaluated the efficiency of the water supply system and assessed water quality at the Standerton Water Treatment Plant (SWTP) in Lekwa Local Municipality, Mpumalanga, South Africa. The assessment focused on operational performance, distribution effectiveness and compliance with national and international water quality standards. Data were collected through field observations, water meter readings and five years of water quality data obtained from the Department of Water and Sanitation (DWS) Mpumalanga from 2016 to 2020. Efficiency analysis involved comparing water quantity against demand, quantifying water losses and assessing distribution reliability. Water quality was evaluated by comparing measured parameters to guidelines set by the World Health Organization (WHO), South African National Standard (SANS-241), and Department of Water Affairs (DWA). Parameters analyzed included microbiological indicators such as Escherichia coli and total coliforms, as well as physicochemical variables like pH, turbidity, free chlorine, electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS), manganese (Mn), and iron (Fe). The results showed that pH, EC, and TDS consistently met the acceptable limits throughout the five-year period, indicating stable performance in these aspects. However, free chlorine, turbidity, manganese and iron persistently exceeded regulatory limits, signaling systemic issues within the treatment process. These ongoing exceedances point to challenges such as inadequate chemical dosing, poor filtration, ineffective disinfection and possible contamination within the distribution network. Of particular concern was the detection of E. coli, suggesting faecal contamination and increased risk of waterborne diseases. The elevated turbidity, Mn and Fe levels also affected water aesthetics, leading to consumer complaints and diminished trust in the municipal water supply. Operational challenges identified include aging infrastructure, poor maintenance practices, inaccuracies in chemical dosing and delayed responses to equipment failures such as malfunctioning pumps and burst pipelines. The plant operates beyond its designed capacity; although licensed for 27 ML/day with a design capacity of 37 ML/day, SWTP treated 43 ML/day while the estimated demand was approximately 45 ML/day. This overcapacity strains the plant, contributing to the suboptimal treatment performance. Additionally, the plant did not comply with regulatory requirements mandating the measurement of critical parameters pH, turbidity and EC at two-hour intervals, due to a lack of necessary analytical equipment. Staffing issues were prevalent, with many process controllers lacking formal training and qualifications necessary for effective plant management. The study also highlighted real-world impacts on local businesses, such as Goldie Chicken, which experiences water outages lasting up to two days per week. These interruptions have resulted in reduced production, workforce retrenchment and the inability to meet market demand. To improve water service delivery, it is imperative for the municipality to invest in upgrading water treatment infrastructure, ensure that plant personnel meet minimum qualification standards and implement continuous training programs to build technical capacity. Strengthening operational management and maintenance practices is essential to achieving regulatory compliance, safeguarding public health and securing a sustainable water supply for the Standerton community.Item Embargo A Comparative Study on the Efficacy of Modified Clay Soil for the Decolouration of Acidic and Basic Textile Dyes: A Case Study(2025-09-05) Chauke, Livingstone; Gumbo, J. R.; Ngulube, T.Dyes play a crucial role in the production of various products, including paper, plastics, and leather. However, their release into the environment leads to pollution and poses health risks to both humans and animals. Therefore, it is essential to treat dye-containing effluents before they are discharged into the environment. This study employed a cost-effective method to remove dyes from wastewater by utilizing natural clay as an adsorbent. The efficacy of Mn²⁺/Al³⁺ oxide-modified Mukondeni black clay soil (smectite) in removing acidic (Methyl Orange, MO) and basic (Crystal Violet, CV) textile dyes was evaluated. A 1:3 modified smectite ratio was identified as the most effective adsorbent. Characterization using X-ray Fluorescence (XRF), Brunauer-Emmet-Teller (BET), X-ray Diffraction (XRD), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS), Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR), and Point of Zero Charge (PZC) revealed that Modified-SMT contained 18.42% Al₂O₃ and 61.08% SiO₂, had a surface area of 35.30 m²/g, and featured functional groups such as C–O, C–O–C, and O–H, with a PZC at pH 4.30. Maximum dye removal efficiencies were recorded at 91.95% for MO after 90 min under the conditions (initial dye concentration = 20 mg/L, temperature = 30 °C, contact time = 90 minutes, shaking speed = 250 rpm, solution volume = 30 mL, and an adsorbent mass = 2 g). For CV, an efficiency of 96.35% was achieved after 30 minutes under conditions (initial dye concentration = 20 mg/L, temperature = 30 °C, contact time = 30 minutes, shaking speed = 250 rpm, solution volume = 30 mL, and an adsorbent mass = 0.1 g). Adsorption isotherm analysis indicated that MO followed a multilayer mechanism on heterogeneous surfaces (Freundlich model), while CV exhibited monolayer adsorption on homogeneous surfaces (Langmuir model). Kinetic studies confirmed pseudo-second-order behaviour. Thermodynamic parameters Δ𝐻 = - 47.72 KJ/mol and Δ𝑆 = -0.17 J/mol/K showed that MO adsorption was non-spontaneous and exothermic (ΔG = 12. 64 KJ/mol for 80 °C), whereas Δ𝐻 = 22.64 KJ/mol and Δ𝑆 = 0.09 J/mol/K for CV adsorption was spontaneous and endothermic (ΔG = -9.55 KJ/mol for 80 °C). The adsorbent retained its efficiency over four regeneration cycles, demonstrating its suitability as a sustainable and effective solution for dye removal in wastewater treatment. It can be concluded that Mn²⁺/Al³⁺ oxide-modified Mukondeni black clay soil (smectite) can remove both MO and CV dye from aqueous solution.Item Embargo Performance assessment of rural water supply system: A case study of Matatani Village, Musina Local Municipality, South Africa(2025-09-05) Tshivhase, Elelwani; Makungo, R.Assessment of the performance of a water supply system is essential to ensure its effectiveness in supplying water to households. The study assessed the performance of rural water supply system using Matatani Village as a case study. Field observations were conducted to identify existing water supply sources. These were mapped in Quantum Geographical Information Systems to determine the spatial distribution of the water sources and their proximity to households. A questionnaire survey was conducted to gather community perceptions of the water supply system. Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 25 was used to analyse questionnaire survey data. Water quality sampling was conducted from December 2023 to May 2024, covering both dry and wet seasons. Sampling locations included Borehole 1 (BH1), Borehole 2 (BH2), River Upstream (RU), River Downstream (RD), the Municipal Tap (MT), and Spring water. Water samples were analysed for physical, chemical, and microbiological parameters. Extech EC500 Pocket Meter and Extech TB400 Turbidity Meter were used to measure physical parameters. Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission Spectroscopy and DR3900 Spectrophotometer were used to analyse metals and non-metals ions, respectively. Metals and non-metals which were analysed include calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), potassium (K), sodium (Na), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), cadmium (Cd), arsenic (As), iron (Fe), lead (Pb), sulphate (SO4), chlorine (Cl), phosphate (PO4) and fluoride (F). Microbiological parameters including Escherichia coliform (E. coli) and total coliform were analysed using membrane filtration method. Groundwater yield and water requirements were estimated for the months of December 2023 to May 2024. These were compared to the estimated water requirements at basic, intermediate and optimal service levels. Key performance indicators on reliability and accessibility were compared to benchmarks to assess the performance status of the water supply system. The socioeconomic profile of Matatani Village is dominated by young population, with 31.4% aged 18–29 years. The high proportion of youth suggests that water demand and usage patterns are influenced by an active population engaged in both domestic and economic activities. Matatani Village faces economic vulnerabilities, with 68.6% of the population relying on grants and a high unemployment rate, with 75.7% of the population unemployed. The high unemployment status indicates significant economic hardship, which can limit the community’s ability to contribute financially to water system maintenance. The findings from field observations and a questionnaire survey indicated that the community relies on diverse sources, including rivers, springs, boreholes, communal taps, rainwater, and municipal water tankers. BH3 and BH4 are non-functional, while BH1 remains operational but is situated far from the households, making access challenging for residents. BH2 was initially designed to support both Mbodi and Matatani residents, but supplying water consistently to Matatani Village has proven challenging. The Mutale River and springs are vulnerable to contamination, while water from municipal taps is infrequently available. The results indicated that only 15.7% of households use 1400 liters per household per week. About 37.1% use between 350–700 liters, 24.3% access 175–350 liters, and 7.1% receive less than 175 liters per week, all of which were below the benchmark of 1500 liters per household per week. The residents of Matatani face challenges in accessing water from their preferred main source. The travelling distances to BH1 varied from 536 m to 1.73 km while the river varied from 3.80 km to 6.56 km to households and were above the benchmark of 100 m. Majority of the respondents (81.4%) experience frequent water supply disruptions indicating poor reliability of the water sources. Groundwater yields varied from 61714.29 to 77142.86 L/d and were adequate to meet the water requirements of 7000, 14000 and 28000 L/d for basic, intermediate and optimal access levels. While most physical water quality parameters complied with water quality guidelines, turbidity for groundwater from BH1 did not meet the compliance standard. Most of the microbial and chemical parameters did not meet the compliance standards for water quality guidelines. Some of the microbial and chemical water quality parameters that exceeded the guidelines include E. coli, total coliform, Al, Zn, Mn, Pb, Cd and Fe in all water sources. Failure to comply with water quality guidelines for chemical and microbial water quality parameters compromised the safety of the water for domestic use. Although half of the population perceive community engagement in water supply management as beneficial, only 1.4% actively participate in paying for these services, which may affect the sustainability of the water supply system. The performance assessment of the Matatani Village water supply system highlighted challenges related to accessibility and reliability, thereby limiting its effectiveness in meeting community needs resulting in poor performance. The study recommends implementation of improved water distribution systems and rehabilitation of BH3, which will increase the water supply and alleviate pressure on other sources. Strengthening community participation through new water management committees and training programs is also recommended for ensuring the long-term sustainability of the system.Item Embargo Time series modelling of groundwater levels in a selected semi-arid catchment within Vhembe District Municipality, South Africa(2025-09-05) Madula, Andy; Makungo, R.This study is aimed at modelling groundwater levels in a semi-arid catchment within Vhembe District Municipality, South Africa. Auto Regressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA) model and Seasonal Auto Regressive Integrated Moving Average with eXogenous variables (SARIMAX) model were used to model the interaction between groundwater levels, temperature, wind speed, evaporation, and rainfall. The unpredictable occurrence of rainfall and other weather conditions in semi-arid and arid regions has caused a restriction in simpler computations of groundwater levels. Historical hydrological data sets of groundwater level were used to model groundwater level and forecast with ARIMA model. Climatic variables like temperature, wind speed, evaporation and precipitation were employed as exogeneous variables of the SARIMAX simulations. The analysis of groundwater levels included the use of Sen’s slope estimator which showed significant fluctuations, with sharp declines, followed by stability and a subsequent increase over time. The ARIMA model’s forecasting of groundwater levels indicated a stable groundwater levels trend post-2016. The training data revealed historical fluctuations, while the test data showed a sharp increase before stabilizing. The SARIMAX model demonstrated a reasonable predictive accuracy for groundwater levels, incorporating significant predictors and seasonal patterns. However, diagnostic tests suggested further model enhancements could improve residual handling. Data stations were selected based on availability of long-term data and considering stations with minimal or no gaps. The data range of the study was 12 years from 2007 to 2018. Both ARIMA and SARIMAX models performed well in predicting groundwater levels. The inclusion of exogenous variables in the SARIMAX model offered a more nuanced understanding of data trends, making it a reliable tool for forecasting. The study findings showed that the groundwater levels in the Luvuvhu River catchment have a stable increase over time and also highlighted the issue of missing data in climatic variables like precipitation which prevented the SARIMAX accuracy in forecasting groundwater levels. This study's insights are valuable for developing effective groundwater management strategies, especially when compared with other studies that highlight the importance of incorporating climate variability into such models for enhanced accuracy. The SARIMAX model's application in predicting groundwater levels is a significant step in environmental modelling, offering insights into subterranean water dynamics crucial for sustainable management.Item Embargo Evaluation of groundwater quality and geographical survey of the boreholes in Ga-Ramaswikana (Simson) Village, Limpopo Province: South Africa(2025-09-05) Sethokga, Sekgopo Paul; Gumbo, J. R.; Durowoju, O. S.; Makungo, R.Geochemical processes and the type of rock in which the aquifer is formed are, in most cases, responsible for natural groundwater deterioration. Therefore, groundwater deterioration is associated with various health risks to persons consuming the water, thus, it would vary from adults to children. Ga-Ramaswikana and surrounding communities depend on groundwater for household uses due to the lack of municipal water supply systems. This study focused on investigating the groundwater quality, geological formation, and geo-profile of boreholes in Ga-Ramaswikana village. The water samples and geophysical survey data were collected four times, once a season (autumn, winter, spring, and summer). The methods of water quality analysis and borehole profiling using PQWTS500 groundwater detector were adopted. The following water quality parameters were evaluated, physicochemical parameters such as Total Dissolve Solid (TDS), Turbidity, Salinity, Temperature, pH, and Electrical Conductivity (EC); The major anions and cations (HCO3- , SO42- , NO3- , Cl- , F- , K+ , Mg2+, Ca2+, Na+ ), and Trace metals such as (Aluminium (Al), Arsenic (As), Chromium (Cr), Copper (Cu), Iron (Fe), and Silicon (Si)). Fluoride concentrations were above the SANS limit (1.5) during the three seasons and is likely responsible for teeth discoloration. This makes the water unsuitable for drinking use. The average fluoride (F-) levels for all weather seasons were 1.73, 2.1, 2.6, 2.9, and 1.9 mg/l for the following boreholes respectively, Sepaela, Mashabela, Public borehole, Mahladisa, and Rampa. The public and Rampa boreholes had the highest turbidity which exceeded the limit of 5 NTU for World Health Organisation, and South African National Standards. The community borehole had turbidity of 101.6, and 32.4 NTU in spring and summer respectively. For Rampa household, the water had a turbidity of 22 NTU and 9.7 NTU in winter and summer respectively. For trace metals, higher concentrations of aluminium were recorded in the following boreholes (P2, P4, P8, P12, P14, P15, P16, P18). 100 % of water samples in the study were prone to Silicon which affected the taste of water. Arsenic was present in high concentration in the following boreholes P12, P13, P14, P15, and P18 of different seasons. The P12 to P18 boreholes had arsenic concentrations of 1.69, 4.48, 3.01, 4.5, and 6.17 mg/l, except for P16 which was for Mogalakwena river water sample. The major cations (Ca2+, Na+, Mg2+, and K+) were plotted against major anions (HCO3- , SO42-, and Cl-) on a piper diagram to understand the water type dominant in the groundwater of Ga-Ramaswikana Village. The geochemistry of groundwater in Ga-Ramaswikana Village is dominated by calcium chloride (CaCl2) water type in most boreholes. CaCl2 is a type of hard water that gives a salty water taste of groundwater within Ramaswikana Village. The groundwater chemistry of a public borehole is CaCl2 throughout all seasons. This tells that the public borehole is drilled on a calcium chloride rock formation. The decrease in annual rainfall trend has impacted the seasonal groundwater recharge. Geophysical surveys were conducted to investigate the subsurface profile of boreholes and geological formations in Ramaswikana village. Therefore, the PQWTS500 groundwater detector machine revealed that some boreholes in the study were wrongly sited. This area is associated with the Gneiss formation and the groundwater in this area is salty. This may be due to geochemical processes such as weathering, rock-water interaction, dissolution of minerals, and ion exchange, which alter the water quality in the ground. An integrated approach involving the geophysical survey and groundwater quality has been studied. Therefore, it has contributed to a better understanding of groundwater, geologic formation, its quality, and health risks of groundwater within Ga-Ramaswikana. The findings will be shared with relevant stakeholders in the water sector and community leaders for sustainable mitigation strategies and development.Item Embargo Hydrogeochemical evaluation and groundwater quality assessment for drinking and irrigation purposes in Bushbuckridge, South Africa.(2025-05-16) Singo, Thivhilaheli; Makia, Diko L.This study was conducted in Bushbuckridge, situated within the Sand River Catchment (SRC), Mpumalanga Province, South Africa, with the aim of evaluating the hydrochemistry and assessing the quality of groundwater for drinking and irrigation purposes. Groundwater samples (n= 40) were collected from different boreholes in different locations around the study area. Groundwater hydrochemical parameters including pH, total dissolved solids (TDS), electrical conductivity (EC), total hardness, major cations (Ca2+, Na+, K+ and Mg2+) and major anions (F-, Cl-, NO3- HCO3-and SO42) concentrations were assessed for the study area. Suitability for drinking was assessed based on comparison with selected standards and guidelines, such as the South African National Standard (SANS), Department of Water and Sanitation (DWS), World Health Organization (WHO) and by computation of Water Quality Index (WQI). Groundwater suitability for irrigation was assessed using eight irrigation indices: TDS, EC, Sodium Adsorption Rate (SAR), Sodium Percent (%Na), Kelly's Index (KI), Residual Sodium Carbonate (RSC), Permeability Index (PI) and Magnesium Hazard (MH). Groundwater type and facies characteristics was determined with the Piper diagram while geochemical controls were ascertained using Gibbs diagram. The results indicate cation and anion concentrations in the order; Na+ > Ca2+> Mg2+ > K+, and HCO3- > Cl- > SO42- > F- > NO3- respectively, while EC (14 – 551mS/m), TDS (99 – 4411 mg/l), Cl (1.1 – 1290.6 mg/l), Na (16 – 758 mg/l), Mg (0.54 – 181 mg/l) and TH (15 – 1085) were variables with upper ranges significantly above SANS and WHO guidelines. According to the DWS guidelines the suitability of groundwater for drinking was classified as class – 0 (ideal; 10%), class – 1 (good; 24%), class – 2 (marginal; 40%), class – 3 (poor; 20%) and class – 4 (unsuitable; slightly over 7%). The WQI indicated that 40% of the analysed groundwater samples were of excellent quality, 56% good and 4% were found to be poor to unsuitable for drinking. Results for groundwater irrigation suitability potential for the analysed samples (n=40) revealed four clusters; (a) most or all the samples are suitable based on TDS (65%), EC (75%) and SAR (100%), (b) just over half are suitable based on PI (59%) and %Na (55% permissible), (c) most of the samples are unsuitable based on RSC (77%), and (d) equal distribution between suitable and unsuitable based on MH and KI (50%). According to the dominant cations and anions, the main water types were Na-HCO3, Ca-HCO3 and Mg-Ca-HCO3 mixed type. Rock weathering was the dominant geochemical process, associated with evaporation. Water-rock interactions through silicate weathering and ion exchange reactions between Ca2+, Mg2+ and Na+ were determining factors influencing the hydrochemical evolution of groundwater in the study area. The findings of the study suggest that the groundwater quality in the Bushbuckridge area is under threat. There is need for prompt mitigation actions that seek to intensify water quality monitoring, more in-depth studies to characterize the source and fate of potential pollutants in the area.Item Embargo Investigating the effects of aridity and its impacts on water resources availability in the Luvuvhu River Catchment(2025-06-16) Nkuna, Tinyiko Rivers; Makungo, R.The study investigated aridity and its impacts on water resource availability in the Luvuvhu River Catchment (LRC). Hydrological information indicates gradual changes towards more arid conditions in the LRC. The shift towards aridity has impacted negatively on water resources availability. Aridity indices for the LRC were determined using both meteorological and hydrological data. The 5-year or 10-year rainfall or streamflow averages were used to detect drought thresholds, except during flood events. A significant study was done on drought conditions using Standardised Precipitation Index (SPI), Standardised Precipitation-Evapotranspiration (SPEI) and Standardised Streamflow Index (SDI). The study hypothesised increased inter-station variations (spatial and temporal) observable from 5-year or 10-year rainfall or streamflow averages over a historical hydrological period. The study used rainfall and temperature data from the Agricultural Research Council (ARC) and South African Weather Service (SAWS) spanning 58 years (1961 - 2018). National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) data with a resolution of 10 km was used to determine historical and future aridity in the LRC. The spatiotemporal variations and trends of aridity are reflected in the availability and distribution of water resources. The study developed the aridity indices using United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Aridity Index (AI) to determine the spatiotemporal variability of water resources in the LRC. The variations and trends of aridity indices were determined using the coefficient of variation and Mann Kendall test, respectively. Due to a limited number of weather stations in the study area, the Kriging method was used to interpolate aridity indices for areas with no stations. The temporal changes of the 5-year or 10-year cycles of hydrological data analyses show progressive, gradual increases linked to global environmental changes such as global warming. The Hierarchical clustering (HC) analysis revealed the presence of two factors that account for 59.7% and 39.3% of the variability in rainfall within the LRC. The results show that upstream of the catchment experiences more rainfall and lower temperatures than downstream. The increase in temperature and decrease in rainfall might negatively impact the availability of water resources for downstream users. Thus, more arid conditions are experienced downstream of the catchment than upstream. Flood events have become rare and more intense, a characteristic associated with areas prone to droughts. The results of the study reveal significant year-to-year variability in floods and drought events. The increase in aridity should be considered when allocating water resources and implementing sustainable water resources management in the LRC. Thus, the study provides a baseline for monitoring and modelling hydrological processes in arid environments.