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Item Open Access Development of mineral beneficiation and value addition framework for sustainable socio-economic development of Zimbabwe(2024-09-06) Laisani, John; Amponsah - Dacosta, F.; Mulaba, A. F.Less than a decade is remaining for African Vision 2030 which began in 2009 to lapse, yet some of its targeted developmental milestones such as mineral beneficiation and value addition are yet to be achieved. Most of the African countries richly endowed with mineral resources that are committed to incorporating beneficiation and value addition in various value chains are still lagging significantly. Zimbabwe is one country through its Zimbabwe Accelerated Sustainable Socio-Economic Transformation (ZIMASSET) economic blueprint which elaborated the multiple benefits of the beneficiation strategy to unlock value from its vast mineral resources but never developed a framework for its implementation. This study aimed to fill that gap by developing a mineral beneficiation and value-addition framework to achieve sustainable socio-economic development in Zimbabwe. The objectives of this study were to examine the existing policies on mineral beneficiation and their effects on sustainable socio-economic development; evaluate the cross-cutting constraints and associated interventions to encourage mineral beneficiation in Zimbabwe; examine the perceptions of stakeholders regarding the need for mineral beneficiation and value addition in Zimbabwe and ultimately developing a framework for mineral beneficiation and value addition for the sustainable socio-economic development of Zimbabwe. A mixed methods approach was used to achieve the objectives and the study design was convergent parallel design. A stratified random sampling technique was used to select 291 participants for the quantitative survey. Data was collected using a survey questionnaire and descriptive statistics were computed using SPSS version 25. An unstructured interview guide was used to collect qualitative data and themes were used to analyse the data through thematic approach. Results of the study indicate that the existing policies on beneficiation are hindering the realisation of the beneficiation and value addition of minerals. Zimbabwe’s policy volatility, policy inconsistency, bureaucracy, and corruption heavily affected the implementation of the beneficiation policy. The cross-cutting constraints include energy constraints, lack of skills, lack of institutional capacity, lack of coordination, monitoring, and evaluation of policies, lack of appropriate legislative instruments, and the neglect of the socio-economic aspect of beneficiation. Stakeholders indicated a strong affiliation to the beneficiation strategy but there is scepticism around the current economic and political situation which is blurring the realisation of this policy. Using the above results, the framework for mineral beneficiation and value addition was developed. This framework is a critical pillar for enhancing economic value chains through beneficiation and value addition because it outlines important aspects, role players and the resulting benefits for achieving sustainable socio-economic development in Zimbabwe. The development of the framework for mineral beneficiation and value addition in Zimbabwe implies a strategic roadmap that can guide policymakers, promote collaboration, address challenges, and pave the way for sustainable socioeconomic development through the efficient utilization of the country's mineral resources.Item Embargo Impacts of climate change on water resources availability for agriculture in Nzhelele Area, Limpopo Province(2024-09-06) Ndou, Naledzani; Makungo, R.; Nkuna, T. R.Many countries worldwide are experiencing climate change associated impacts on their most valuable sectors such as water resources and agriculture, and South Africa is no exception. The impacts of climate change on water resources availability are projected to increase in almost all regions. This will have a devastating impact on agriculture, especially in a semi-arid and water scarce area of South Africa. This study investigated the impacts if climate change on the availability of water resources for agriculture in Nzhelele area, Limpopo Province. The Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) was used to evaluate the impacts of climate change on future water resources availability. The SWAT model was calibrated and validated using data for the periods 1991-2000 and 2001-2009 using the SWATCUP-SUFI-2 technique. SWAT model was then fed with projected rainfall and temperature data from Conformal Cubic Atmospheric model (CCAM) for the periods 2023-2053 (near future) and 2053–2082 (far future) to simulate future inflows. Crop water requirements (CWR) for selected crops (maize, tomato, groundnuts, and sweet potato) were estimated using the crop coefficient approach for wet season (summer) and dry season (winter) in near future and far future. The CWRs were compared with inflows to evaluate the availability of water to meet future CWRs. The SWAT model performance was evaluated based on evaluation criteria Coefficient of determination (R2), Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency (NSE), percent bias (PBIAS) and ratio of the root mean square error to the standard deviation of measured data (RSR). The model showed good performance statistics of R2 of 0.71, NSE of 0.56, PBIAS of +0.6% and RSR of 0.66. The study findings revealed that simulated inflows will decrease by 28.67% and 48.22% in the near future and far future, respectively, relative to the baseline period 1987-2009. A comparison of inflows and CWR showed that in near future, water requirements for maize, tomato, groundnuts, and sweet potato in wet season will exceeds inflows by 49.54, 10.05, 9.43, and 9.14%, respectively. In the dry season, water requirements for tomato and sweet potato will be higher than inflows by 29.87 and 71.12%, respectively. However, estimated water requirements for maize were 62% lower than inflows in dry season. In far future, water requirements for maize, tomato, groundnuts, and sweet potato in wet season will be higher than inflows by 66.08, 26.9, 27.15, and 37.22%, respectively, and in dry season water requirements for tomato and sweet potato and maize will be higher than inflows by 62.30, 89.42 and 25.87%, respectively. The study concluded that projected inflows will not be able to meet the simulated future crop water requirements in Raliphaswa irrigation scheme under changing climatic conditions.Item Embargo Optimisation of Operating Conditions and Field Assessment of Copper Nitrate Impregnated Ceramic Water Filters as Point-Of-Use Water Treatment Device(2024-09-06) Tshidumo, Milliscent Nduvho; Edokpayi, J. N.Consumption of contaminated water is increasingly becoming a leading problem in developing nations and posing greater threat to human health. Consequently, treating water at the household level is highly recommended for the protection of public health. This research investigates microbial water quality challenges in Tswinga village, focusing on the impact on residents' health, daily life, and socio-economic activities. The primary research question explores the effectiveness of ceramic water filters, particularly those impregnated with copper nitrate, in mitigating waterborne diseases and improving water quality in the region. The study employs a mixed-method approach, combining fieldwork, photovoice methodology, socio-demographic surveys, and laboratory analyses. Fieldwork involves participant interviews, digital photography, and thematic analysis to understand the community's water-related challenges. Socio-demographic surveys gather information on household characteristics, water sources, and daily experiences. Water samples from various sources, in the field, undergo physicochemical and microbial analyses. Ceramic water filters with varying concentrations of copper nitrate were optimised in the laboratory to assess their efficacy in reducing Escherichia coli (E. coli) and total coliform. The results from the field and laboratory were compared to evaluate the filters' real-world performance. Key findings revealed significant water quality challenges, such as safety concerns, sanitation issues, and diseases attributable to contaminated water. Photovoice methodology highlighted the community's priorities, emphasising the need for sustainable access to clean water. Physicochemical analysis demonstrated that raw water from Tswinga falls within acceptable standards, but microbial analysis revealed the presence of E. coli and total coliform. After optimisation, ceramic filters impregnated with 1 g concentration of ionic copper demonstrated promise in reducing E. coli and total coliform bacteria. The weekly results indicated an average reduction of 0.64 log for E. coli and 0.16 log for total coliform, showcasing the effectiveness of the filters, attributed to the antibacterial properties of ionic copper. However, challenges arise in translating laboratory success to real-world usage, raising questions about user compliance and proper maintenance. The study sheds light on the complex water quality challenges faced by Tswinga village. While the physicochemical parameters meet standards, microbial contamination poses a severe health risk. Ceramic water filters, particularly those with 1 g of copper nitrate, showed potential in laboratory studies, but their effectiveness in real-world situations depends on addressing user behaviour and maintenance issues.Item Embargo Environmental Impacts of Tin Mine Waste: A Case Study of the Zaaiplaats Tin Mine, Limpopo Province, South Africa(2024-09-06) Nemadodzi, Matodzi Bridget; Mundalamo, H. R.; Ogola, J. S.This research focused on the potential impacts of the Zaaiplaats tin mine waste on the environment and on human health. It investigated the heavy metals and their distribution pattern at the Zaaiplaats tin mine. Heavy metals were investigated in the tailings, water and plants found at the mine. A radiation survey was also conducted to check for the possibility of potential radionuclides induced by the mine. Fieldwork involved collection of tailings within the old river channel, Heap A, B and C. A total of 65 samples were collected, 15 of them, across the river profile, while 6, 24 and 20 were collected from Heap A, B and C respectively. Samples were prepared and analysed at the Mining and Environmental Geology laboratory at the University of Venda using X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometry. The maximum values were 2842.4 ppm, 885.1 ppm, and 740.7 ppm for lead from Heap B followed by copper, and zinc from the river channel respectively. The distribution pattern of some metals like lead, zinc and copper were increasing with depth. The highest Pi (Environmental quality index of the pollutant) was registered by Pb followed by Cu and As and the values are 47.11, 29.95 and 26.89 respectively. Cu, Zn, As, Pb, Th and U had shown a higher degree of pollution which is presented by Pi values of 3 and above in all the different sampling locations of the tailings. The total water samples collected were depending on the availability. Therefore, only 3 water samples were obtained by use of 250 ml bottles. Water samples were prepared and analysed using Atomic Absorption Spectrometry. There are no values for metals such as Cr, Ni and Co in water samples collected at Zaaiplaats tin mine. However, the maximum values of Pb and Cu metals were 0.67 ppm and 0.59 ppm respectively which is higher as compared to the South African water quality guidelines and it is thus polluted. A plant commonly known as horsetail (Equisetum ramosissimum) was collected during dry and wet season for comparison purposes. A total of 9 plant samples were collected, prepared and analysed using Atomic Absorption Spectrometry. Bioaccumulation factor of these plant samples were higher during the dry season and lower during the wet season. The trend in the BAF for heavy metals during dry season are in the ranking order of Cr > Cu > Pb > Co. The trend in the BAF for heavy metals during wet season are in the ranking order of Co > Cu > Pb > Cr. Cr was transferred effectively in dry season while cobalt was transferred effectively in wet season. Cr and Cu metals were absorbed and accumulated during dry season as opposed to wet season wherein Co was absorbed and accumulated in wet season than in dry season. BAF and TF values were lower in both dry and wet season. The horsetail plant is a hyper-accumulator of these metals and can be used for their clean up as a remediation strategy paired with other remediation measures. Radiation dose rate and dose surveying was also conducted by means of a portable radiation survey meter DP802i-RAYTECH Radiation Detector. Radiation dose is increasing from a higher elevation which is the first surveying point along the river channel to low elevation. Radiation dose rate is inconsistent and does not have a general trend. The radiation dose rate mean, minimum, maximum values in microsievent per year (mSv/y) were 4.03 mSv/y, 0.96 mSv/y, and 11.65 mSv/y respectively. The maximum value of radiation dose rate was slightly higher compared to UNSCEAR background radiation of 2.4 mSv/y to 10 mSv/y. However, Zaaiplaats tin mine tailings are of no immediate concern since there are some areas that have had a radiation dose rate of 10 times higher than that of UNSCEAR and no deleterious health effects were associated with this elevated radiation exposure.Item Embargo Distribution and dispersion of metals and their economic potential: a case of the Fumani Tailings Dam, Limpopo Province, South Africa(2023-10-05) Shavhani, Tshedza; Ogola, J. S.; Mundalamo, H. R.The study was conducted at the Fumani Tailings Dams 1 and 2 located in Malamulele, Mtititi village and the area surrounding it to investigate the distribution and dispersion of gold and metals such as Pb, Zn, Cu, As, Co, Cd, Cr and Ni, and also to determine their pollution status, whilst looking at possibilities of reprocessing the tailings as well as using tailings for brick production. A total of 84 and 63 tailings samples were collected from tailings dams 1 and 2 respectively. 3 profiles were set on each tailings dams, with 4 and 3 boreholes set on each profile of Fumani Tailings Dams 1 and 2 respectively. All boreholes were drilled by a hand auger up to a depth of 7 m, collecting samples of approximately 5 kg at each 1 m interval. The samples were prepared at the University of Venda MEG laboratory where they were analysed for pH using pH meter, metals and major elements using X-ray Spectrometry, Gold using AAS as well as geotechnical tests using sieve analysis. Profile logs as well as pH logs revealed that the tailings dams were highly oxidized at the surface of the tailings dams to about 2 m. The average pH revealed that the entire tailings is slightly acidic to neutral. X-ray fluorescence spectrometry confirmed the presence of Pb, Zn, Cu, As, Co, Cd, Cr and Ni. The pollution status conducted revealed that As and Ni pollutes the tailings dams whilst the remaining metals are within the required standard. Gold values within the tailings dams showed a very erratic trend with depth, with an average concentration of 1.34 ppm and 1.44 ppm at tailings dams 1 and 2 respectively. The study ascertained that there is about 299.1 kg and 225.5 kg of gold within Fumani Tailings Dams 1 and 2 respectively. Soil samples were collected in four directions from the Fumani tailings Dams at an interval of 200 m. The samples were prepared and analysed using XRF for Pb, Zn, Cu, As, Co, Cd, Cr and Ni at the university of Venda. The Study showed that Zn and Cd do not contaminate the soil whilst Pb, As, Cu, Cr and Co highly pollutes the soil. These might be from a different source since they are low within the tailings dams. The Major oxides, sieve analysis, liquid limit test and the plastic limit test were used to classify the tailings using USCS and AASHTO Classification system. The USCS revealed that the tailings were ML and/or CL fine grained silty clay, whilst AASHTO Classification system revealed that the Fumani Tailings Dams 1 and 2 were in class A-4(3) and A-4(1) respectively. The tailings had low LL, low PI, and low alumina content required for brick production. The tailings, therefore, had a low compressibility, slight to low plasticity, and no cohesion, and therefore were not suitable for brick production on their own. Clay and cement bricks of different tailings to soil and cement ratios were made at Tshidino Bricks. All bricks were tested for dimension tolerance test, water absorption test, compressive strength test, hardness test as well as the impact test. All clay bricks failed these tests. The cement bricks passed the hardness test, water absorption test, and hardness test. This was not enough to make them suitable for brick production as they failed the dimension tolerance test and compressive strength test.Item Embargo Development of framework for streamlining prospecting and mining right application process in South Africa(2023-10-05) Madilonga, Rudzani Charlotte; Amponsah-Dacosta, F.; Mhlongo, Sphiwe EmmanuelMining has been one of the most significant contributors to South Africa's social and economic progress. South Africa is endowered with a diverse of minerals and mining activities are driven by large corporations and small-scale miners. However, the legislative uncertainty undermines the role of the small miners in society and the economy. This is despite interventions by the government, through legislation, which affords everyone an opportunity to participate in mining, through acquiring prospecting and mining right applications. The promulgation of the Mineral and Petroleum Resources Development Act (MPRDA), 28 of 2002, was meant to address the imbalances of the past which amongst others include inequitable access to “the nation's mineral and petroleum resources”. Some of the requirements needed for exploration and mining rights applications to be granted have been seen as stumbling blocks for Historically Disadvantaged South Africans (HDSA’s) and emerging junior miners, to fully participate in the sector. For example, finances and technical availability is one of the main reasons why HDSA’s haven’t participated fully in the mining activities of the country. This study proposes a framework, which aims to assist HDSAs and emerging miners to participate in the mining industry through acquisition prospecting and mining rights. The research data was collected in two phases. Phase one was the quantitative phase. In this phase, questionnaires were circulated to more than 50 potential respondents involved in the mining and related sectors. The quantitative data was analyzed statistically for interpretation. The second phase of data collection was done through qualitative method, where specific questions were sent to 10 experts in the sector. The results were also analyzed through the identification of common themes and interpreted to contribute to the design of the framework. The results of this study show that although the MPDRA provides emerging junior miners with the prospect to enter the mining industry, there are still barriers or hindrances blocking them from entering the mining industry. Challenges ranged from the initial compilation of documents, processing of the applications and requirements which need to be met, to departmental challenges. The study reveals that historically disadvantaged South African and emerging miners, do not have the necessary skills to compile applications and attach relevant documents to meet certain regulatory requirements. In addition, the study shows that the Department of Mineral Resources and Energy (DMRE) expects historically disadvantaged individuals and emerging miners to provide proof that they have the financial and technical ability to carry out the proposed prospecting and mining right works programmes. Financial and technical requirements have been the common areas that results in prospecting and mining rights applications being declined. Moreover, the internal process at the DMRE seemed to favor large-scale mining companies, who have financial resources and technical expertise to carry out prospecting or mining rights. The framework for streamlining prospecting and mining rights applications will create an environment that enables indigenous people and emerging junior miners to obtain prospecting and mining rights and will provide economic growth for smaller communities. It will also afford the DMRE to have better control, by providing a section, which will be dedicated to assisting historically disadvantaged people and emerging junior miners by providing guidance in terms of the application process and also recommending for funding.Item Embargo Lithostratigraphic and Geochemical Characterisation of the Waterberg Coalfield: Implications to Acid Mine Drainage, Limpopo Province, South Africa(2023-10-05) Ramphabana, Khethani Tom; Mundalamo, H. R.; Ogola, J. S.; Netshitungulwana, K. T. R.The study conducted at Sekoko coal mine in the Waterberg coalfield of South Africa aimed to establish the quality of coal and its host rocks, as well as the potential for acid mine water generation. A total of 18 samples were collected from a box-cut and analysed using various methods such as, Scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction spectroscopy, X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy, proximate analysis, Modified Sobek Acid Base Accounting test as well as petrographic study. The major rock types identified in the study area included shale, sandstone and gritstone. Coal was overlain by these rocks. The study revealed significant concentrations of framboidal pyrite in coal, which increases with depth as determined by X-ray Diffraction spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy. Whole rock geochemistry indicates that Fe2O3 was higher in coal (1.18 wt%) than in host rocks (0.45 wt%) and increased with depth. Average mean of 1.23% a.d. for sulphur content was revealed thus, classifying the coal as medium sulphur coal. Sulphur occurred as pyritic, organic, and as sulphate, in that order of abundance. Using both proximate analysis and calorific value (with mean value of 21.2 Mj/kg) coal was classified as below grade D. From the vitrinite reflectance value (ranging between 0.6 to 0.7), coal was ranked as medium-grade bituminous C. Paste pH and EC results indicated that the Sekoko coal is already undergoing oxidation, and modified Sobek tests indicated that over 72% of the analysed samples have sufficient sulphur to generate long-term acid mine drainage. The potential for acid generation increases with depth (1.09 to 181 kg/t) and was high on the southern side (181 kg/t) than the western side (52 kg/t). Results indicate that there aren’t enough neutralization materials to counter the acid production potential as the neutralisation potential is negative for all samples. The study concluded that the coal from Sekoko coal deposit is enriched with pyrite minerals, hence this causes an increase in the potential for acid mine water generation. Screening of coal prior to utilization is recommended so as to reduce the content of pyrite in coal.Item Embargo Coal Occurrence and Quality at Mushithe Area, Soutpansberg Coalfield, South Africa(2023-10-05) Mphanama, Thangeni; Mundalamo, H. R.; Ogola, J. S.South Africa is the 7th largest coal producer in the world and continues to rely on coal as its primary energy source, owing to its abundant availability and low cost. The Mushithe coal occurrence, located within the Pafuri basin of the Soutpansberg Coalfield, has been overlooked compared to other coal occurrences in the Tshikondeni area. The coal occurrence at Mushithe outcrops at Mbodi River. The study aims at establishing the geological setting, mode of occurrence, coal quality and economic value of the Mushithe coal occurrence. Geological mapping and sampling, petrography, and geochemical analysis were done on 14 host rock and 6 coal samples. Coal bearing rocks at Mushithe are occurring as a valley isolated from the Pafuri Basin. The outcropping seam at Mushithe is exposed along the Tshamatsha Fault. The coal measures contain four to seven seams, ranging from 0.35 m to 11.38 m in thickness. Pink and red quartzite, mudstone, basalt, quartz vein, sandstone, shale, carbonaceous shale, and calcrete were identified as associated rock types. The general strike is northeast, and the dip direction is northwest, with an average dip angle of 23°. Mushithe coal is dominated by vitrinite (65.77%) and inertinite (34.23%), with no liptinite detected. The high presence of vitrinite suggests that the coal is formed in a wet swamp environment. Additionally, signs of weathering such as cracks, fissures, and oxidation rims were observed in the coal. Coal quality belongs to bituminous C on UNECE 1998 classification, being characterised by low sulphur content (0.23 to 0.38 wt %) and high moisture (6.07 to 10.94 wt %), ash yield (16.7 to 41.9 wt %), volatile matter (29.7 to 35.8 wt %), fixed carbon (25.25 to 50.49 wt %) and calorific value (12.97 MJ/kg to 23.35 MJ/kg). Mineral matter constitutes approximately 5.7 to 35.8 wt %, predominantly quartz with varying proportions of clay (kaolinite), as well as minor carbonates (siderite) and sulphides (pyrite). The geochemistry is characterised by high values of Al2O3 from 7.56 to 15.83 wt %, SiO2 (9.76 to 20.04 wt %), and MgO (0.26 to 2.80 wt %). The outcropping seam was found to be of economic value and suitable for use as thermal coal for electricity generation.Item Embargo Analysis of work accidents data: A case study of the South African mining industry(2023-10-05) Masindi, Masala Theron; Amponsah-Dacosta, F.; Mhlongo, Sphiwe EmmanuelFor any industry to be successful, its production needs must be met while the highest safety standards are maintained. Mining accidents and their subsequent fatalities have enormous social and economic consequences. The current study was undertaken to better understand the fundamental causes of mine accidents so that major remedial actions can be developed and implemented to improve safety in the mining industry. The purpose of this study was to analyse work accident data of the South African industry that was compiled for the period 2008–2017. Secondary data on accidents was requested from the Department of Mineral and Energy Resources (DMRE). Accident data obtained from DMR was summarized, characterized, and described in a meaningful manner to determine the variables or factors which contribute to accidents in the mining industry. Variables that contribute to accidents in the mining includes fall of ground/rock fall, machinery, transportation and mining, general, conveyance accidents, electricity, fires, explosive, heat sickness and miscellaneous. Descriptive statistics, figures, and tables were used to describe and understand the accidents within the mining industry. A chi-square test was used to quantify the extent to which accident outcomes and commodities are independent of each other by year and injury type. This was done to examine the association between the dependent accident outcome and the independent variables such as year, commodity type, and casualty type. The study was significant in that its findings will contribute to building a culture of safety within the mining environment1, which was not only to reduce the risks of miners being exposed to potential workplace accidents but also had an impact on their attitude and perceptions towards workplace safety and their perception of zero as this is one of the priorities which the mining industries need to achieve. The study produced results that summarize the influence of year, commodity type, and casualty type on accident outcome. In particular, the analysis of accidents helped in establishing the relationship between the dependent accident outcome variable and several independent variables, such as year, commodity type, and casualty type, there was an increased number of accidents with respect to different commodities with different in years. The findings of this study vi will be used in planning, designing, and implementing health and safety programmes that will contribute to decrease in the number of accidents for mining different commodities in South Africa. Keywords: mining accidents, accidents dataItem Embargo The Impact of Dam Construction on Downstream Water Resources: A case of Nandoni Dam in Luvuvhu quaternary catchment A91F, North-Eastern South Africa.(2023-10-05) Mathule, Phathutshedzo; Mathivha, F. I.; Ramulifho, P. A.Globally, there is increasing concern over the increased damming of rivers, as this has led to a change in the hydrological regime and transformation of river runoff. There are varying impacts of dams on river flow regimes depending on how these dams are operated. Damming of rivers has altered the hydrologic cycle globally, causing severe consequences for streams' ecological and morphological equilibrium. Reservoir use and its impact on flow regimes have not yet been linked in a recognizable way. This study assessed Nandoni Dam water resources in relation to inflow and outflow, and the amount of streamflow required to maintain the ecological integrity. The inflows and outflows in dam were determined using the traditional water balance approach. Streamflow data collected at Mhinga station A9H012 downstream of Nandoni Dam before dam construction was used to calculate environmental flows using the IHA/RVA methodologies. Inflows trends over the study period were found to be on a downward trend. Peaks in computed inflow occur during periods of heavy rainfall as excepted for rainfallrunoff relationships. Abstraction of water from the Nandoni Dam for domestic purposes (i.e., to water treatment plants) increases over the study period despite increases or decreases in dam water storage. The downstream flow of the dam is impacted both positively and negatively, despite quantitative suggestions regarding streamflow required to maintain ecological integrity. A range of environmental flow requirements was presented in this study downstream of the Nandoni dam. Values for selected Environmental Flow Components (EFCs) parameters are presented as percentiles between 10% and 90%. Different durations of analysis show significant variations in minimum and maximum flows. High pulse numbers, as well as the rate at which they rise and fall, have changed significantly. Hydrologic regime downstream was disturbed, and streamflow variations were directly affected by the construction of the dam. It is crucial to build a detailed water budget model that considers climatic, hydrological, and stakeholder interests to optimize dam operation rules. Reservoir operations must be developed with the participation of riparian communities, engineers, hydrologists, physical geographers and climatologists and general environmentalists to be socially, economically, and environmentally sustainable.Item Embargo A method of minimizing the proliferation of algae/cyanobacteria species on clay bricks(2023-10-05) Khethani, Muditambi Bronie; Gumbo, J. R.; Mhlongo, S. E.The presence of Algae/Cyanobacteria in different environments such as water and or hard surfaces (brick pavements) is unwelcome due to either secretion of cyanotoxins and or mucilage. These secretions may be harmful to humans. The main purpose of this study was to develop a formula for making clay bricks incorporating banana matrix and coal powder. The objective of this study was to review the state of knowledge in terms of control of algae/cyanobacteria in general and clay, coal, and banana chemical composition, controlling the algae/cyanobacteria growth using modified clay bricks. The bricks' physical properties were examined, including water absorption, compressive strength, color, impact, efflorescence, dimensional stability, tolerance, and wrappage tests. Banana peels (Musa sapientum) were gathered from farms and markets, dried by the sun, pounded in a pestle and mortar, and sieved through (<2 mm) before being subjected to analysis. A jaw crusher, milling machine, oven, CBR, weighing balance, spectrophotometer, and ICP-OES were utilized. A small metal brick-box frame, a hand mixing machine, and a measured water jug were used when building clay bricks. Modified bricks were made of clay soil, coal powder, and banana powder, in different composition). The modified clay bricks were then submerged in BG 11 liquid media with growing algae/cyanobacteria suspension for a period of 90 days. The samples' pH, temperature, total dissolved solids, electrical conductivity, and absorbance levels were all measured. The single factor ANOVA showed a significant difference between the treated samples B1, B2, B3, B4, B5, B6, and B7 and the control from day 1 through month 3. The p-values for this difference from day 1 through month 3 were 0.017, 0.007, 0.011, 0.007, 0.009, 0.001, 0.003, 0.001, 0.015, 0.015, and 0.001 The single-factor ANOVA found a significant difference between the treated samples CB1, CB2, CB3, CB4, CB5, CB6, and CB7. The p-value was p<5 from day 1 to week 4, 0.005 to 0.003, 0.005 to 0.003414, 0.004 to 0.002, 0.011 to 0.017, and 0.012 to 0.007. There was no significant difference in coal in 1 and 2 months. It was found that the absorbance on the untreated and control samples was not inhibiting the algae. It continued to develop. The untreated samples C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, C6, and C7 significantly differed, according to the single factor ANOVA. The p-value was p<5 and within the 95% confidence range from day 1 to month 3, and it was 0.011, 0.004, 0.006, 0.003, 0.023, 0.018, 0.004, 0.003, 0.006, 0.004, and 0.004. According to this study, using banana peel powder effectively inhibited algae and cyanobacterial species from growing on clay bricks. The outcomes also demonstrated that using coal + banana powder effectively inhibited cyanobacteria. Based on the findings, banana powder has been shown to have a high potassium content, which is v supported by ICP-OES results. Additionally, modified clay (banana) bricks were analysed and were found to have a higher potassium concentration than other bricks when compared to other metals (Ni, Na, and Mn). Overall the modified clay bricks with banana biomass displayed excellent characteristics in inhibiting blue-green algae/cyanobacteria. They may be applied to an environment where the blue- green algae/cyanobacteria are proliferating to reduce or eliminate its harmful algal bloom.Item Embargo Emission quantification associated with firewood usage: A case study of Mangondi village in Limpopo Province, South Africa.(2023-10-05) Mudau, Phumudzo; Edokpayi, J. N.For a long time, fuelwood has been used as an affordable source of energy, available for cooking, lighting, and heating. Fuelwood combusted using informal stoves which are not properly designed are characterized by having low combustion properties, hence, this results in high air pollutant emissions since the fuelwood is not fully combusted. A large quantity of criteria pollutants and greenhouse gas (GHG) are present in the atmosphere causing global warming and climate change due to domestic wood combustion (DWC). The aim of this study is to quantify the use of firewood as a source of energy in Mangondi village, a rural village in the Limpopo Province, South Africa. This study employed structured questionnaires and face-to-face interview to gather required information, to identify preferred tree species used as firewood in Mangondi village. The questionnaires were administered to forty households that were selected randomly in the village. Additionally, a crane scale was used to quantify the firewood mass burnt daily by the 40 households during the winter and summer seasons of 2021. The study used the data generated as a baseline for estimating the GHG, and criteria pollutants’ emissions released from burning fuelwood in winter and summer by the participating households in Mangondi village. The results obtained from the questionnaires and interviews, revealed that the preferred tree species used as firewood in the households were Dichrostachys cinereal, Euclea divinorum Hiern and Combretum imberbe. Fuelwood was the main source of energy used by the households of Mangondi village for preparing meals and space heating. The results from this study illustrate that several factors, such as, socio-economic aspects, accessibility and availability were reasons for the utilization of fuelwood as a preferred choice of energy for households in Mangondi village. The average wood mass burnt in 2021, in the morning sessions (2-5 hours) was 4.04 kg/day and 2.94 kg/day in the evening (1-1h30) and amounted to an average of 2545.27 kg per household, per year. More fuelwood was used in winter than summer mostly due to space-heating needs. The emission rate for GHG, CO2 (1771.12 g/day) and CH4 (5.9 g/day) was higher in winter than in summer (1014.86 g/day and 3.38 g/day) respectively. Results for the criteria pollutants estimated, show that PM2.5, PM10, CO, SO2 and NOx was 169.24 g/day; 60.23 g/day; 68.09 g/day; 0.79 g/day; 5.12 g/day in winter and 1014.86 g/day; 96.98 g/day; 3.38 g/day; 34.51 g/day; 39.02 g/day;0.45 g/day; 2.93 g/day in summer. This study shows that households in rural areas still choose to use fuelwood to meet their daily energy needs because it is easily accessible and cheap. This study illustrated that burning fuelwood leads to GHG and criteria pollutant being emitted, therefore, intensive awareness and pollution control programs are suggested to improve indoor air quality and health condition of the rural population.Item Embargo Modelling impacts of climate change on hydrology of Latonyanda River Quaternary Catchment, Limpopo Province, South Africa(2023-10-05) Mukwevho, Shudufhadzo Godlive; Makungo, R.; Nkuna, T. R.The study assessed the impacts of climate change on hydrology of Latonyanda River Quaternary Catchment (LRQC). The Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model played a huge role in climate change impact analysis because it helped in improving the understanding of climate change impacts on hydrology as well as in determining mitigation measures. Arc-GIS 10.7 model with a compatible version of Arc-SWAT interface was used to model the impact of climate change on hydrology of LRQC. The SWAT model set up for calibration and validation was done using historic data. The SWAT Output viewer was used to view model performance results. Model performance was assessed based on scatter plots, graphical fits and performance measures which include Nash Sutcliffe Efficiency (NSE), percent bias (PBIAS), and coefficient of determination (R2). Climate change projections from Conformal Cubic Atmospheric Model (CCAM) were used to forecast the impact of climate change on hydrology. The historical, near future and far future periods are 34 (1981-2014), 30 (2023-2052) and 30 (2053-2082) years, respectively. To determine trends on annual average flows and statistical significance for historical, near and far future, regression analysis was used. Regression analysis showed that significance levels of the p-value for historical, near, and far future annual flow trends is 0.010, 0.034 and 0.030, respectively. The model performance was good and acceptable with NSE, PBIAS, and R2 for both calibration and validation as 0.67 and 0.68, -9.3 and -13.4%, and 0.70 and 0.69, respectively. The findings of the current study show that streamflow amount is decreasing over time with annual average totals of 4.849, 2.340 and 2.051 m3/s for the historical near, and far future respectively. The results will aid in raising awareness to the community and municipality governing around LRQC. This study recommends venturing into smart development technologies to minimise the impact caused by climate change. Further climate change related studies should be conducted as there is a gap in ungauged catchments. The expansion of the current study to include land use impacts on hydrology is recommended.Item Embargo Emission quantification associated with firewood usage: A case study of Mangondi village in Limpopo Province, South Africa(2023-10-05) Mudau, Phumudzo; Edokpayi, J. N.For a long time, firewood has been used as an affordable source of energy, available for cooking, lighting, and heating. Firewood combusted using informal stoves which are not properly designed are characterized by not having regulatory control facilities to achieve complete combustion, hence, resulting in increased smoke and gaseous emissions since the firewood is not fully combusted. A large quantity of criteria pollutants and greenhouse gas (GHG) are released to the atmosphere from such combustion which potentially contributes to global warming and climate change. The aim of this study was to quantify the emissions resulting from the use of firewood in Mangondi village, a rural village in the Limpopo Province, South Africa. This study employed structured questionnaires and face-to-face interview to gather required information, to identify preferred tree species used as firewood in Mangondi village. The questionnaires were administered to forty households that were selected randomly in the village. Additionally, a crane scale was used to quantify the firewood mass burnt daily by the 40 households during the winter and summer seasons of 2021. The study used the data generated as a baseline for estimating the GHG, and criteria pollutants’ emissions released from burning firewood in winter and summer by the participating households in Mangondi village. The results obtained from the questionnaires and interviews, revealed that the preferred tree species used as firewood in the households were Dichrostachys cinerei, Euclea divinorum Hiern and Combretum imberbe. Firewood was the main source of energy used by the households of Mangondi village for preparing meals and space heating. The results from this study illustrate that several factors, such as, socio-economic conditions, accessibility and availability were reasons for the utilization of firewood as a preferred choice of energy for households in Mangondi village. The average wood mass burnt in 2021, in the morning sessions (2-5 hours) was 4.04 kg/day and 2.94 kg/day in the evening (1-1h30) and amounted to an average of 2545.30kg per household, per year. More firewood was used in winter than summer mostly due to space-heating needs. The emission rate per household for GHG, CO2 (1771.12 g/day) was higher in winter than in summer (1014.86 g/day). Results for the criteria pollutants estimated, show that PM2.5, PM10, CO, SO2 and NOx was 169.24 g/day; 60.23 g/day; 68.09 g/day; 0.79 g/day; 5.12 g/day in winter and 1014.86 g/day; 96.98 g/day; 3.38 g/day; 34.51 g/day; 39.02 g/day;0.45 g/day; 2.93 g/day in summer. This study shows that households in rural areas still choose to use firewood to meet their daily energy needs because it is easily accessible and cheap. This study illustrated that burning firewood leads to GHG and criteria pollutants being emitted, therefore, intensive awareness and pollution control programs are suggested to improve indoor air quality and health condition of the rural population.Item Embargo Heavy metal contamination and potential health risks from soils around a stone quarry in Tzaneen, South Africa(2023-10-05) Mara, Mthuthuzeli Kenneth; Diko-Maria, L.; Ekosse, G. E.Heavy metals exist naturally in the earth’s crust as part of the composition. Their contents vary between regions resulting in spatial variations of background concentration. The concentration of heavy metals in the environment can increase to high levels through anthropogenic sources. Stone quarrying is one of the anthropogenic sources responsible for increase of heavy metals in the environment. Hence, the study aimed at assessing the contamination level and human health risks caused by heavy metals from soils around Tzaneen stone quarry. A total of 46 samples were collected and analysed for Cr, Pb, Cu, Co, Ni, Zn, Mn and Fe using AAS. The pollution level of the heavy metals in the study area was estimated using Pollution Index (PLI), Enrichment Factor (EF) and Geo-accumulation Index (Igeo). Non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic health risks were assessed for inhalation, ingestion and dermal absorption routes for infants, children and adults based on the hazard quotient (HQ), hazard index (HI), average daily intake and carcinogenic slope factor. Concentration of Mn and Fe were highest in the soil samples whereas Ni had the lowest concentration. Metal loading trends revealed a general decreased with distance from the quarry site. The PLI of heavy metals in the soil from the community ranged from 0.55 to 0.75 with an average value of 0.66 suggesting an unpolluted status. Metal enrichment at the quarry was in the order: Mn>Co>Pb>Cu>Ni>Cr>Zn while in the nearby community, it ranged from Co>Pb>Cr>Mn>Cu>Ni>Zn. The values for HQ and HI showed that infants, children, and adults in the study are exposed to potential non-carcinogenic health risks through dermal absorption compared to inhalation and ingestion. Children were the most at-risk population exposed to non-carcinogenic risk. Values for the incremental lifetime carcinogenic risk (ILCR), were lower than the US EPA tolerable range (10-6 – 10-4), suggesting no immediate carcinogenic risks. However, prolonged exposure to quarry dust may still remain a potential health threat to the surrounding communities. It is recommended that quarry workers and residents in the study area should take protective measures against long-term exposure to heavy metals in the area.Item Embargo Removal of Cadmium (II) Ions from Aqueous Solution Using Zebediela Kaolin, Limpopo Province, South Africa(2023-10-05) Ikome, Julie Enanga; Diko-Makia, L.; Bukalo, N. N.Water is central to the life of human beings and the ecosystem, thus, access to clean and safe water for the overall wellbeing of a nation cannot be over-emphasised. In this study, raw kaolin from Zebediela was used to adsorb cadmium (II) ions from aqueous solution. Mineralogical characterization (X-ray diffractometry, Fourier transform infrared spectrophotometry), morphological characterization (scanning electron microscope-energy dispersive using X-ray) and chemical characterization (X-Ray Fluorescence) were done to determine and quantify the minerals present, their morphologies and the elemental composition of the kaolin sample. The mineralogical analyses revealed that the sample was predominantly made up of kaolinite. Morphological analysis showed that the kaolin sample had well developed kaolinite books and stacks with relatively porous aggregates. Furthermore, chemical analysis demonstrated that the kaolin sample is predominantly composed of silica (SiO2 = 58.39 %), alumina (Al2O3 = 28.04 %) and titanium dioxide (TiO2 = 2.26 %). Batch adsorption experiments were done to investigate the effect of pH, sorbent dose, contact time and metal ion concentration on the removal of cadmium (II) ions from aqueous solution using Zebediela kaolin. An optimum pH of 7 was observed and was used as the working pH for the other adsorption experiments. Increased adsorption was noted at lower sorbent doses (0.25 - 1 g), however, there was a decline in adsorption at higher sorbent doses (1 – 1.5 g). The adsorption process was initially very fast, and equilibrium was reached after 40 minutes. In addition, there was a rise in percentage removal of Cd (II) ions as initial concentration increased which was followed by a decline after equilibrium was attained. Adsorption isotherm and kinetic models illustrated the adsorption of Cd (II) ions onto the Zebediela kaolin which followed Langmuir isotherm and pseudo second order mechanism, respectively. This study, therefore revealed that raw Zebediela kaolin has the potential to be used as an adsorbent of cadmium (II) ions from aqueous solution.Item Embargo Dynamical processes in the evolution of Cut Off Lows over South Africa(2023-10-05) Khangale, Khuthadzo; Mathivha, F. I.; Ndarama, T.; Chikoore, H.This study presented deviations in the evolution of Cut-off lows (COLs) through four COLs events over the South African domain from a case study point of view. Furthermore, this study demonstrated COLs as cold-cored low-pressure systems estranged from westerly wind belts above . COLs are hazardous as they are mostly associated with unbearable precipitations and winds. The main aim of this study is to develop an understanding of dynamical processes during COLs. ERA5 data sets were used throughout the study to achieve objectives. Mean seal level pressure surfaces along with the 250 hPa geopotential heights were used to link the existence of COLs with ridging highs, the results shows that COLs that develop north of the subdivided study region (C and D) are mostly associated with Type-N ridging highs, whereas those that develop south (A and B) are associated with Type-S ridging highs. COLs were identified using 500 hPa geopotential height and the 330K potential vorticity. The results showed that high negative pool of potential vorticity is one of the principal factors during COL genesis. The small-scale jet associated with COLs tends to disappear as the COL dissipates. Some COLs extend to 850 hPa and further towards the surface and while others may not. COLs that extend towards the surface are associated with deeper PV intrusions. Cold cores of COLs are usually found at 500 hPa and uplifting of air during COLs occur further east from its centre which is filled with cold air mass. COLs tend to propagate east as soon as they are formed, but the speed (distance/time) is different from one COL to the next. The mechanism involved in COL development was investigated in detail using the eddy kinetic energy (EKE) budget applied to data from ERA5 reanalysis. This approach considers the most important processes involved such as the Ageostrophic flux convergence (AFC), Baroclinic convergence (BRC) and the Barotropic convergence (BRT). The results showed that the AFC together with the BRC are important for the EKE growth. Furthermore, AFC is responsible for the COL genesis, BRC is necessary for system maintenance and the BRT affects COLs negatively. The operational forecasting of these weather systems across the nation can be enhanced by the application of the knowledge about the evolution in the characteristics of COL events from this study.Item Embargo Assessment of Potential Temporal Impacts of “Land use Activities on Water Quality of the Luvuvhu River “Catchment, South Africa(2023-10-05) Shibambu, Thivhonali Hilton; Edokpayi, J. N.; Kahler, D.River health is crucial to benefit from the full resource potential of surface water bodies. This benefit becomes compromised when there’s high water quality degradation in the system. Considering the South African context, the use of untreated river water for domestic uses such as laundry, recreation, and crop irrigation, is a common practice in various urban and rural communities. The Luvuvhu River Catchment (LRC), in Limpopo Province, South Africa, serves as an essential water resource for the communities within the catchment. Thus, the main focus of this study was to assess the impacts of land use activities on the water quality of the Luvuvhu River Catchment (LRC). This was achieved by analysing the spatiotemporal variation of river water, sediment quality and the potential ecological as well as human health risks associated with the river water and sediments. Sediment and water “samples were collected from 22 sampling sites along” the Luvuvhu River Catchment between November 2020 and October 2021. Water samples were analysed for physicochemical parameters, nutrients, major metals and heavy metals, while sediments were analysed for heavy metals only. Physicochemical and nutrients data analysed consisted of pH, total dissolved solids (TDS), turbidity, temperature, dissolved oxygen (DO), salinity, biological oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), electrical conductivity (EC), nitrate (NO3⁻), chloride (Clˉ), sulphate (SO4 2ˉ), and phosphate (PO₄³⁻). Samples were digested “using microwave acid digestion (EPA 3051) and analysed using inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES) and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer” (ICP-MS) for major metals (Na, Mg, K, and Ca) and heavy metals (Mn, Fe, Al, Cr, Cu, Zn, As, Co, Ni, Mo, Ba, Hg, Cd, and Pb), respectively. The study examined the spatial distribution of these parameters using the Interpolated Distance Weighted (IDW) method on Esri ArcGIS Pro software. The findings were compared to South African Water Quality Guidelines and the World Health Organization. The results show that the water quality fluctuated during the sampling period. Some parameters such as turbidity, EC, nitrate, Al, Mn, and Fe exceeded the drinking water standards. The findings also show spatiotemporal differences in water quality. The upstream catchment of the river is predominantly covered by agricultural activities and land use becomes more naturally vegetated in the downstream catchment inside the Kruger National Park. Further, the study reveals that the Luvuvhu River Catchment receives a significant amount of pollutants from the upstream and midstream reaches as well as upstream rivers in the Limpopo River before the confluence of the Luvuvhu River. The quality of water further degrades towards the downstream catchment along the gradient as the river flows through various land use activities. It is therefore, concluded that upstream activities and other tributaries of the Limpopo River have a significant impact on the river’s water quality. The quality of water in some sampling sites are not suitable (higher than the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry guidelines) for agricultural use and protection of aquatic ecosystems due to elevated concentrations of some parameters such as Hg, Cu, Mn, Fe, and Al. Generally, about 72% of the metals in “sediments and water are higher during the wet season than the” dry season. It is also found that high runoff during the wet season act as a transporting mechanism for pollutants though some parameters are not seasonally influenced. The statistical tools used were able to analyse the water quality data of the river and provided meaningful and relevant information about the river. Multivariate Principal Component Analysis (PCA) revealed substantial anthropogenic contributions of metals in sediment and Cluster Analysis (CA) revealed three classes indicating three major anthropogenic (land use activities) contributions. While the “Pollution Load Index (PLI), Enrichment Factor (EF), Contamination Factor (Ci f) and Geo-accumulation Index (Igeo) indicate that the level of contamination is low to moderate in most of the” sediment samples. In consideration of “the potential ecological risk, the LRC sediments show low potential ecological” risk. Also, chronic daily intake of metals because of ingestion was below the recommended guidelines. The overall hazard index for children and adults did not exceed the recommended limit (HI < 1) indicating no or low health risk (non-carcinogenic). The carcinogenic risks of As, Pb and Cd at various sampling sites via ingestion were lower than 10-6 indicating no or low risk to develop cancer. This study recommends further studies to be conducted in specific time frames to limit heavy metal content and to prevent further pollution of catchment ecosystems including Kruger National Park by future industrialisation and urbanisation processes upstream of the catchment.Item Open Access Development of an integrated approach for prioritization of mine features of selected abandoned mines for rehabilitation in the Giyani Greenstone Belt(2022-11-10) Mbebe, Noxolo Kindness; Amponsah-Dacosta, F.; Muzerengi, C.; Mhlongo, S. E.Mining has a potential to provide sustainable economic and social benefits to communities and the regions in which mining companies operate. However, many mines have been abandoned and/or improperly closed which has lasting impacts on public health and safety and the environment. South Africa has more than 5906 abandoned mine sites that were left unrehabilitated. Although the problems of abandoned mine sites are well documented, little has been done to rehabilitate the mine sites. This may be attributed to costs associated with rehabilitation and standard criteria to aid the rehabilitation process. Most of the existing rehabilitation approaches do not adequately address the physical, chemical, and environmental hazards associated with abandoned mines. The purpose of this study was therefore to develop an integrated approach that will not only assess impacts of abandoned mines but also prioritize abandoned mine features for rehabilitation based on their associated physical, chemical, and environmental hazards. In developing an integrated rehabilitation approach, two abandoned mines were selected, and all the mine features were studied by identifying, locating, mapping, and documenting them. The hazards linked to the mine features were classified as physical, chemical, and environmental hazards. A scoring and ranking approach was developed to quantify physical, chemical and environmental hazards of each abandoned mine feature. Sources of contamination, pathways and impacts of abandoned mine features were scored and ranked for physical and environmental hazards. Abandoned mine features with greater physical, environmental, and chemical scores were then prioritized for rehabilitation. In quantifying and ranking chemical hazards posed by the abandoned mine features, parameters such as Pollution Load Index, Geo-accumulation index, Contamination Factor and Potential Ecological Risk Index were used. The physical, chemical, and environmental scores were combined to determine the total hazard score for the abandoned mine sites. The hazard scores were then integrated to determine the overall hazard score per mine site. The results of the study showed that physical, environmental, and chemical hazard scores for Klein Letaba were 2.5, 1.5 and 2.2 times respectively higher than those of Louise Moore. The total hazard score for Louis Moore and Klein Letaba was 47.44 and 89.46 respectively. The results also revealed that the overall hazard score at Klein Letaba was higher than that of Louis Moore and this suggests that the associated risks at Klein Letaba are higher. Based on these findings, abandoned mine features at Klein Letaba must be prioritized for rehabilitation over features at Louis Moore. The new and integrated approach provides a framework to identify, characterize, quantify, and prioritize high risk abandoned mine features for rehabilitation. The drawbacks of the existing rehabilitation prioritization methods have been identified and examined and the new integrated approach of prioritization of mine site rehabilitation addresses these concerns. As such, this new integrated approach provides a holistic, transparent, unique, cost-saving and practicable technique of prioritizing and addressing undesirable impacts of abandoned mine sites. It is recommended that best practicable strategies be developed to mitigate the adverse impacts of the abandoned features and their detailed cost analysis conducted. Additionally, the involvement of local authorities and all other stakeholders will be crucial in increasing awareness of the seriousness of the environmental and safety concerns of the abandoned mine features at the mine sites.Item Open Access Evaluation of water quality, hydrochemical processes, and health risks associated with spring water in Thulamela Municipality, Limpopo Province, South Africa(2022-11-10) Madilonga, Rofhiwa Teresa; Edokpayi, J. N.; Durowoju, O. S.Groundwater is regarded as one of the most crucial natural resources, globally. In Africa, people have been focusing, extensively, on groundwater, for water supply to meet their daily water needs, especially, in rural areas. This is because the geographic locations of most rural communities are hard to reach, due to them being dispersed and the bad terrain. In South Africa, these conditions have made it difficult and expensive for provision of water services to rural communities. Springs have been widely used for a variety of human needs including recreation, drinking water, domestic water supply and irrigation. In Thulamela Municipality, there are springs located within the Vhembe District in the Limpopo Province, South Africa. This study aimed to evaluate the water quality, potential uses, and health risks associated with spring water in Thulamela Municipality. One hundred and sixty-four water samples were collected from 41 springs between August-September 2020 (dry season) and December-January (wet season) 2020/2021 and analyzed for their physicochemical and microbial characteristics. The analytical data of some physicochemical parameters (pH, Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), Electrical Conductivity, Salinity, Turbidity and Temperature) was determined onsite using Extech multimeter and turbidimeter. All the physiochemical parameters measured complied with the World Health Organisation (WHO) and South African National Standards (SANS) in both seasons, except for turbidity. The concentration of trace elements (Al, V, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Cr, As, Se, Sr, Mo, Cd, Sn, Sb, Ba, Hg, Pb and Si) were analysed by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) and major cations (Na, Mg, P, K and Ca) were analysed using inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES). The major and trace metals analysed were recorded in levels below the regulatory limits of WHO and SANS except for Sb in the wet season. Major anions (𝐹−, 𝐶𝑙−, 𝑁𝑂3−, 𝑁𝑂2−, Br, 𝑃𝑂43− and 𝑆𝑂42−) in the spring samples were analysed using Ion Chromatography (IC). The concentrations of 𝐹−,C𝑙−, 𝑁𝑂3−,and 𝑆𝑂42− complied with the regulatory limit while 𝑁𝑂2−, Br, 𝑃𝑂43− exceeded the limits in both seasons. Microbiological parameters (Total Coliform, faecal coliform and E. coli) were tested using Membrane Filtration (MF) method. None of the spring water samples complied with the regulatory guidelines of 0 cfu/100ml set by WHO and SANS, for human consumption. Total coliform were recorded in all of the samples, in both seasons. Faecal coliform showed 85.4% and 95.13% presence in the dry and wet seasons whereas E. coli detected 34.15% in dry season and 58.53% in the wet season. The Water Quality Index (WQI) was also computed based on parameters: Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Cr, Cd, Ba, Pb, Mo and Zn. The WQI in Thulamela Municipality showed 100% and 80.04% for dry and wet seasons, respectively of sampled spring water can be regarded as excellent water quality, whereas and 19.51% for dry and wet seasons, respectively are considered as good water quality. The Piper diagram was v determined by three hydrochemical types, namely, Ca-HCO3, mixed Ca-Mg-Cl, and Ca-Cl2 water types in wet and dry seasons. The dominant water type in dry season and wet seasons were Ca-Mg-Cl and Ca-HCO3, respectively. The principal hydrochemical processes shaping the groundwater chemistry are either dilution or mixing. Gibbs plots in all the studied seasons suggested that spring weathering material was the prevailing system controlling the science of the springs at the study area followed by evaporation. Health risks, from assessment of carcinogenic and non- carcinogenic materials, were detected in the water. Hazard Quotation (HQ) and Hazard Index (HI) were lower than 1, in both seasons (wet and dry) for children and adults. Cancer Risks (CR) showed that they were in order of Cr>Ni>Pb>Cd from highest to lowest in both seasons for both adults and children. CR of Pb for adults and child recorded 21.95% (dry), 7.7% (wet) and 21.95% (dry), 4.8% (wet), respectively, in accordance with the recommended guideline of US EPA. 100% of Cr in both seasons for adults and children was recorded, where the sampled spring water exceeded the threshold limit. The level of Cd revealed in the study complied with the limit of CR in all sampled springs for both dry and wet seasons. Ni values of CR showed 100% for both seasons, for adults which complied with the recommended level, while with children, the values exceeded for both seasons. The statistical analysis showed that there was weak or no correlation between studied parameters in both seasons. There was significant difference found in most parameters of the average levels obtained during wet and dry seasons on spring water, such as total coliform, faecal coliform, temperature, pH, turbidity, Mo , As, Cr, Cu, Ni, Mn, Na ; Mg, Si, P, K , phosphate and nitrite (P<0.05). Those that showed no significant difference were E. coli, salinity, TDS, EC, Al, Hg, Pb, V , Co, Se, Sr, Sn, Sb , Cd, Fe, Zn, Ba, Cl, sulphate, fluoride, Br, nitrate (P>0.05). The Quantitative Microbiological Risk Assessment (QMRA) results showed, the risks of infection per-day results obtained for dry and wet season; these showed that for a child the range was 0 -2.38% (dry) and 0- 2.936% (wet), whereas for adults, the range was 0 - 26.566% (dry) and 0 - 27.459% (wet). There was a relatively high annual risk of infections observed in this study with highest values of 99.58% (child) and 98.80% (adult). The risk of illness values observed showed a range of 0-34.855% (adult) and 0-35 % (child), recorded at S24. This study also presented spatial distribution assessment of water quality to help with better mapping and managing of water quality parameter. The results provide useful data on the suitability of the use of spring water in Thulamela Municipality, hence, provide baseline information of water quality status of the study area. The study recommends that there should be proper treatment of spring water before consumption and increasing public awareness of local communities about spring water and its importance.