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Item Embargo Development of a framework for addressing gender discrepancies in decision making positions in the water sector in South Africa(2026-05-19) Daswa, Mpho; Makungo, R.; Mwendira, E. J.The study developed a framework to address gender discrepancies in decision-making positions within South Africa’s water sector. Gender discrepancies have created a power dynamic in which men hold greater access to resources and leadership roles, resulting in the systematic exclusion of women from key areas of social and economic life. The research assessed women’s participation in projects and programs, as well as their representation as decision-makers in water resource management institutions at local, regional, and national levels. Using secondary data from the Department of Water and Sanitation, Catchment Management Agencies, Water Boards, Water Service Authorities, and Water Service Providers, the study examined the distribution of women across the sector. A mixed‑methods research design was employed to investigate the roles and impact of women in leadership within South Africa’s water sector. Data was collected using a structured questionnaire administered through SurveyMonkey tool and distributed via email. The instrument captured both qualitative and quantitative data across five thematic areas: professional background, challenges encountered, support mechanisms, policy environment, and women’s leadership. Responses were exported to Excel, coded, and categorised to identify key concepts. Reliability of the identified factors was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha, with a cut‑off value of 0.4. Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) was conducted using Statistica (Version 13) to validate the factor structure, requiring at least three items per factor and loadings above 0.4. Additional statistical analyses included descriptive statistics, Pearson’s correlation, t‑tests, ANOVA, and multiple regression to examine relationships and differences among variables. Cronbach’s alpha values indicated acceptable reliability for all factors. To address gender discrepancies in leadership and decision-making positions, the study reviewed existing frameworks and subsequently developed a tailored framework for the South African water sector. The developed framework aimed to enhance women’s effective participation in decision making and support the implementation of national water legislation. The development followed a structured process that included situational analysis, stakeholder engagement through surveys, policy and framework review, identification of gaps based on research findings, and formulation of improvement opportunities. Work Environment (WE) = 0.724, Community Environment (CE) = 0.655, and Women Participation (WP) = 0.824. EFA confirmed two valid independent factors, CE and WE with factor loadings ranging from 0.610 to 0.727 for WE and 0.595 to 0.839 for CE. Descriptive statistics showed relatively low mean scores on the seven‑point scale: WE (M = 2.22, SD = 0.95), CE (M = 3.18, SD = 1.14), and WP (M = 2.44, SD = 0.79), with slight variation across responses. Correlation analysis revealed a strong positive relationship between CE and WP (r = 0.601), while the relationship between WE and WP was weak. Regression analysis confirmed that CE significantly predicted WP (β = 0.580, p < 0.001), whereas WE did not exert a significant influence. ANOVA results showed significant differences in women’s participation based on age (F = 5.43, p = 0.001), educational level (F = 6.38, p = 0.002), organisational size (F = 11.5, p = 0.000), and other demographic and organisational characteristics such as tenure, position, organisational activities, and ownership type. Overall, the findings indicate that community‑level social conditions play a stronger role than workplace conditions in shaping women’s participation in the water sector. The study found that both the WE and CE influence women’s participation in decision making within the water sector, with CE exerting a stronger effect. The resulting framework consists of four elements (policy and gender analysis, empowerment interventions, monitoring and evaluation and policy refinement and institutional learning). Validation results indicated that the framework is usable, dependable, and meets accepted standards. There is a need to implement and further test the developed framework to address gender discrepancies in the water sector.Item Open Access Groundwater Resource Supply Augmentation: A Case Study of Dzamba and Mabulo Villages in Vhembe District Municipality, Limpopo Province, South Africa(2026-05-19) Munyai, Funzani Duncan; Kataka, M. O.The Limpopo Province of South Africa is relatively water-scarce due to climate change, population growth, and economic development. It is well known that every geographical area has some inborn causes of water scarcity related to its origin, structure, geographical location, and setup. The study area is located in Thulamela Local Municipality (TLM) in the Vhembe District, Limpopo province of South Africa, and faces many challenges, including a lack of sustainable water supply. Based on the location of the communities living in the area (being in the most rural areas of Limpopo province), essential service delivery, like water supply, is a severe problem. Dzamba-Mabulo Communities rely on rivers, streams, and springs for water supply. With the effects of drought and climate change, surface water sources often dry up, leaving these communities in a water crisis. The only alternative water source for this area is the groundwater. Most of the research site is covered by the Soutpansberg Group "hard rock" formations, which essentially have no primary porosity. The weathered and fractured discontinuities, also known as secondary porosities, are where groundwater is primarily found. Most boreholes drilled at the research site are poor yielding because most existing boreholes were not scientifically sited. Due to the complex nature of the underlying hard rock, the available groundwater is in the fractured aquifer systems. The study aims to explore groundwater and develop wells for these communities to augment the existing water supply for sustainable use. Groundwater supply was developed (siting, drilling, pump testing, and water quality testing) in groundwater potential areas. The transmissivity values obtained using Theis and Cooper-Jacob methods were 2,0 m2/day and 1,59 m2/day, respectively. While the Storativity (S) was 0,00003 (Theis method) and 0,4 x 10-7 (Cooper-Jacobs). The study recommends submitting future groundwater project reports within the study area to the Department of Water and Sanitation or Local Municipality to update the groundwater databases. The hydrogeological characteristics of the study site will serve as a basis for future groundwater development data collection within the research area, for future reference. The study found an average yield from the pump test for borehole B1 (newly developed borehole) of 0,37 l/sec over 24 hours of daily pumping. The volume of water allowed to be abstracted per day is 32,10 m3, which can meet the basic human need of 25 litres per person per day for 1,284 persons. This is more than 1,6 times the total 18,950 m3 per day required for the 758 Dzamba and Mabulo Villages population. This amount of water can be abstracted with a dynamic water level of 65 mbgl if pumped for 24 hours or 48,30 mbgl if pumped for 12 hours.Item Embargo Modelling streamflow response under different climate change scenarios in Luvuvhu River Catchment, South Africa(2026-05-19) Musitha, Mpho David; Makungo, R.; Nkuna, T. R.Climatic change vulnerability assessments needs the evaluation of climatic threats to water systems as well as the design of effective strategies. The factors and repercussions of climate change are multifaceted, encompassing several ironic elements, particularly the reality that low-income nations are the most vulnerable to its impacts while contributing the least to the human activities that exacerbate climate change. This research examines climate change scenarios utilizing four potential future scenarios, referred to as Shared Socio-economic Pathways (SSPs), encompass SSP1-2.6, SSP2-4.5, SSP3-7.0, and SSP5-8.5 across twelve general circulation models (GCMs) from the CMIP6 framework. Streamflow responses were evaluated for two distinct timeframes: near future (2015 - 2050) and far future (2051 - 2100), with historical data analysed for a period of 1980 to 2014. Climate stress tests were conducted, and an analysis was carried out to model the streamflow response in the Luvuvhu River Catchment (LRC) to changing climate conditions using Soil Water Assessment Tool (SWAT). Readily accessible spatial and temporal data were utilized and the model was calibrated with recorded monthly streamflow data. The performance of the model was assessed through computation of Nash-Sutcliffe Efficiency (NSE), Percent Bias (PBIAS), and the coefficient of determination (R²). The calibration findings for monthly simulation for the (1991-1999) period fell within acceptable model performance limits, with an NSE of 0.57, PBIAS of -0.35, and R2 of 0.74. Validation findings for monthly simulations from 2001 to 2009 were mostly acceptable ranges for model performance with NSE (0.49), PBIAS (-0.50) and R2 (0.52). The observed and simulated streamflow showed strong agreement, as confirmed by both graphical analysis and quantitative statistics. Projected annual precipitation and temperature changes showed that the LRC climate will be warmer in most scenarios than wetter as most of the streamflow respond fell under high risks of about 30% decrease in precipitation. As a result, the study findings highlights the need for well-informed management and adaptation strategies by showing how modeling streamflow response under various climate scenarios can offer crucial insights into how rising temperatures and decreasing precipitation are likely to reduce water availability in the LRC.Item Embargo Time series analysis for the dam water levels and rainfall for Albasini Dam in Limpopo Province, South Africa(2026-05-19) Nemudivhiso, Hangwani Jennifer; Makungo, R.; Ikudayisi, A.Changes in precipitation characteristics and trends can cause extreme events such as drought and floods to occur more frequently in river basins around the world. Also, the impact of these changes on dam infrastructure is very high. Therefore, continuous research and quantitative assessment of the data surrounding dams is highly recommended. This study focused on the time series analysis of Albasini Dam in Limpopo Province using the Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA) model. This was done to assess the hydrological hazard and dam safety risks by using historic and future seasonal trends of the rainfall and dam levels. ARIMA is one of the most widely used models for time series forecasting. It is particularly effective for univariate time series data that exhibit patterns of autocorrelation, trends, and non-stationarity. The monthly historic data for dam water levels and rainfall from 1997 to 2024 for the study area were obtained from the Department of Water and Sanitation. In applying the ARIMA model to the datasets, the time series plot for the dam water level and rainfall from 1997 to 2024 was done. Afterwards, the time series went through the differencing and both rainfall and dam water level indicated a correct pattern and constant mean. The Ljung Box test was also conducted to test the presence of the unit root. Standard deviation for the rainfall was 116.20 mm and dam water level was 2.70 m, indicating the sample mean being low and accurate. Lag 1 and 2 from the Auto Correlation Function and Partial Auto Correlation Function correlation analysis resulted in less than 5% significant from 24 lag transformation. The Mean Absolute Percentage Error of 0.72, RMSE of 0.15, MAE of 0.11 indicated a good model fit for rainfall and dam water level. The rainfall indicates a higher value of the residual ACF and PACF by showing no significant spikes. The optimum models were used to forecast rainfall and water dam levels for 5, 10, and 15 years at the case study. One major observation was that the predicted April 2040 data show a worrisome dam water level of 19.60 m, which is the highest recording when compared to April 2000, which was 19.53 m. The prediction provides the output value that needs preparation in terms of dam safety for overflooding of downstream villages and aquatic life. The ARIMA models demonstrate robust performance for prolonged seasonal time series and time series chart that shows the historic trend of the dam level and the rainfall activity showing similar trend for the forecasted years (2029).Item Embargo Phytoremediation of metals from Klein Letabs Gold Mine Tailings, Limpopo Province, South Africa(2025-09-05) Munyai, Phumudzo Gift; Mundalamo, H. R.; Ogola, J. S.Phytoremediation is an environmentally friendly technique that uses green plants to reduce, remove or extract environmental toxins, primarily those of anthropogenic origin, to restore sites to a condition suitable for private or public use. Its efforts have largely focused on the use of plants to accelerate the degradation of organic contaminants with root rhizosphere microorganisms or remove hazardous metals from the soils and water. Phytoremediation of contaminated sites is relatively inexpensive and aesthetically pleasing to the public compared to alternate remediation strategies which involve excavation or chemical in-situ stabilization. The Giyani Greenstone Belt is known for its gold mineralisation, and has been exploited at Klein Letaba, Louis Moore, Birthday, Golden Osprey and Fumani mines. All these mines are closed but the metals within their respective tailing’s dams can cause environmental and health problems. This study focuses on the Klein Letaba Tailings Dam which has metals such as Lead (Pb), Zinc (Zn), Copper (Cu), Arsenic (As), Nickel (Ni) and Cadmium (Cd) and traces of Gold (Au), which pose significant risks due to historical mining activities. Fieldwork involved geobotanical mapping, geochemical surveys, and pot culture experimental design. A total of 80 plants and tailings samples were randomly collected due to their dominance and abundance on the tailings dam. Tailings samples were collected at the same location as the plant samples. The samples were analysed at the University of Venda, Department of Earth Sciences, Faculty of Science, Engineering and Agriculture and Madzivhandila College of Agriculture. Pot-culture experimental design setup was conducted to evaluate the growth rate and metal uptake and accumulation by hyperaccumulating plant species at the South African National Biodiversity Institute (Thohoyandou Botanical Garden Nursery). The setup involved the use of 14 flower trays. This was done to mimic the Klein Letaba tailings natural environment. The duration of the experiment varied with the growth rate of the different plant species with an estimated period of 7 months for all plants followed by harvesting for four months. Metal concentrations of the plants and tailings were determined using inductively coupled plasma-optical emissions spectrometry (ICP-OES). Geochemical data analysis was done using Microsoft Excel, Arc GIS and Simple Kriging (SK) software to evaluate the metal distribution and plant metal uptake potential on different parts of the plant species at Klein Letaba tailings dam. The study identified three dominant native plant species: Combretum imberbe, Cynodon dactylon and Sporobolus africanus, which are naturally adapted to the tailings dam. Results revealed significant metal uptake, particularly in the roots of Combretum imberbe (CI), and Sporobolus africanus (SA). The metal concentrations of Pb, Ni, As, Cr, Zn and Cu in the tailings dam were found to be high, with a maximum of 11886 ppm, 2049 ppm, 1276 ppm, 1271 ppm, 695 ppm and 140 ppm respectively. The pot-culture experimental set-up constituted 4 harvests where Combretum imberbe demonstrated metal uptake for Cu, Pb and Zn, with concentrations in roots exceeding 7 ppm for Cu and 6 ppm for Pb. Sporobolus africanus showed notable accumulation of Cr, As and Pb with concentrations of 7.8 ppm, 6.6 ppm and 6.5 ppm respectively. Metal uptake was generally higher in the roots compared to the shoot and leaves, indicating that this species primarily acts as a stabiliser rather than a translocator of metals. The potential economic recoverability of metals from native plant species, such as Combretum imberbe, Sporobolus africanus, and Cynodon dactylon, was reviewed. The study identified Combretum imberbe as the most promising phytoremediator, recording high Zn, Fe and Cu uptake in the leaves and shoots, indicating potential for above-ground harvesting. Accumulation of Cu (~5 ppm), Zn (~8 ppm), and Fe (~10 ppm) make it viable for extracting economically valuable metals making it a potential candidate for phytomining. Combretum imberbe and Sporobolus africanus exhibited complementary potential for Zn recovery and stabilisation of Mn and Fe. Furthermore, the low concentrations of Cd and As uptake across all species suggest limited risk of secondary environmental contamination. Metals like Pb, Cu, Ni, Zn and Cd are economically valuable due to their market demand and can also be extracted by environmental remediation. Lead, for example, is currently valued at about $1.95 per kilogram, copper, $4.83 per kilogram, nickel, $7.11 per kilogram, manganese $1.55 per kilogram and zinc, $2.82 per kilogram. This research highlights the potential of native plant species to remediate and stabilise tailings environments while offering economically viable solutions through recovery of valuable metals. This environmentally friendly remediation strategy aligns with the global sustainability goals, fostering safer ecosystems and providing opportunities for rehabilitated land use in mining affected areas. Therefore, this remediation strategy is not only applicable in the studied site but can also be applied in other similar studies.Item Embargo Statistical analysis of rainfall and groundwater trends and their spatial variations in the Mopani District, South Africa(2025-09-05) Nkuzana, Nkateko Mumsy; Makungo, Rachel; Nkuna, TinyikoThis study analysed rainfall and groundwater level trends and variations in the Mopani District, Limpopo of South Africa to guide sustainable water resource strategies, improve decision- making, drought assessments, and climate adaptation strategies. The methodology involved a two-phase approach, starting with data collection through desktop research and fieldwork in the Mopani District. Historical groundwater level and rainfall data were analysed using techniques like the double mass curve, Mann-Kendall test, Sen’s slope estimator, quantile regression, and geospatial analysis with QGIS software to identify trends and correlations. Rigorous quality control measures ensured data integrity, which was confirmed through double-mass curve analysis showing a strong correlation between monitoring stations (R² = 0.9995). The Thiessen polygon method was utilized to select rainfall stations based on their proximity to groundwater monitoring points, emphasizing the hydrological connectivity of the area. The study found that several boreholes, such as Bordeaux Julesburg, Rubbervale, State Land Vuheli, and Nghalume, Skwinyani, Caledone Ndengeza, Nkoankoa, Doorhoek, and Worcester, with Sen’s slope values ranging from -0.049 to -0.547 m/year, showed significant decreases in groundwater levels, indicating potential depletion or over-extraction. Monitoring borehole stations in Namakgale, Paardedood, and Doornhoek with slope values ranging from 0.0743 to 0.1255 m/year also showed non-significant decreasing trends. However, boreholes like Mica and Silwane Nyakalane with slopes of 1.63 m/year and 1.69 m/year exhibited significant increases, likely due to improved recharge conditions influenced by factors such as rainfall, agricultural activities, or other climatic factors. The increasing trend in Haenersburg was not statistically significant (p = 0.960), suggesting random variation rather than a reliable upward trend. The trend analysis of annual rainfall data from 2006 to 2020 at Giyani, Tzaneen Westfalia Estate, and Hoedspruit stations revealed decreasing trends, with negative Sen’s slope values of -13.504, -8.626, and -18.452, respectively. However, these reductions were not statistically significant, suggesting that these reductions may be due to natural variability rather than long-term climate changes. Quantile regression analysis of annual groundwater levels across 16 monitoring borehole stations indicated variability in trends, with negative slope coefficients reflecting decreasing groundwater levels for stations like Bordeaux Julesburg and Rubbervale Station. Overall, 75% (12 out of 16) of boreholes exhibited statistically significant decreasing trends influenced by factors such as over extraction rates and recharge variability. In Hoedspruit, the trends at quantiles 0.1 (p-value = 0.010) and 0.2 (p-value = 0.031) were significant, indicating a noteworthy decline in lower rainfall values. This study reveals significant trends in rainfall and groundwater levels across various monitoring stations, aligning with previous research in Mopani District, Limpopo Province, and South Africa. It emphasizes the need for ongoing monitoring to understand water resource management implications and address challenges related to climate variability and water availability in the region.Item Embargo Mineralogical and chemical characterisation of terracotta clays and their application for dyes removal from aqueous solution(2025-09-05) Mhlarhi, Rirhandzu; Edokpayi, J, N.; Ayinde, W. B.The continuous discharge of untreated or semi-treated dye effluents is one of the global leading causes of surface water quality degradation. The present research aimed at investigating the potential of terracotta clay, herein termed (RTC) and its composite with zinc oxide nanoparticles (RTC@ZnONPs) to effectively sequester cationic (Methylene Blue) and anionic (Congo Red) dyes from aqueous solution. The mineralogical and chemical characteristics of the clay prior to sorption were investigated using Fourier Transform Infrared (FT-IR), X-ray fluorescence (XRF), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Scanning Electron Microscope coupled with Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS), and Brunauer Emmett Teller (BET). The adsorbents’ point of zero charge was also determined. The clays’ characterisation revealed that it was crystalline and mesoporous. Effects of variations in sorption time, adsorbent dosage, initial adsorbate concentration, pH, temperature and water chemistry were investigated in batch experiments. The optimum pH for MB adsorption was identified as 10, and 2 for that of CR. The pseudo second order model provided the best fit for the kinetic data, while Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms justified the state of equilibrium data. Both the Langmuir and Freundlich isotherm models provided explanations for the adsorption processes. Thermodynamics investigations revealed that the reactions were viable, spontaneous and exothermic. After five cycles of adsorption/desorption for the sequestration of both MB and CR dyes from aqueous solutions, the composite RTC@ZnONPs demonstrated outstanding reusability (88.75%) and (61.43%), respectively. The current study showed that (RTC@ZnONPs) can be employed for the removal of other dyes such as Crystal Violet, Indigo Carmine and Methyl Orange from wastewater. Moreover, both RTC and its composite (RTC@ZnONPs) are ideal for the economical and environmentally acceptable removal of MB and CR from aqueous solution.Item Embargo Teaching Mathematics in the Foundation Phase in Erkurhuleni South District schools, Gauteng Province, Republic South Africa(2025-09-05) Ligege, Humbulani; Sinthumule, D. A.; Cassim, H. B.Underperformance of learners in Mathematics in South Africa is a burning issue. Learners in Mathematics do not perform at a level that would allow them to progress to the next grade and this often impacts the Grade 12 results significantly. As a result, it has become evident that the critical problem was the Foundation Phase, where a learner did not get a strong foundation during the early stage of Mathematics. To address the needs of learners, educators with skills and knowledge must fill the gap by identifying the barriers of learners in Mathematics at the Foundation Phase. The study adopted a qualitative approach. Educators in Foundation Phase training covers all subjects, namely Mathematics, Life Skills, Home Language and Additional Language. Some educators may lack interest, knowledge, methods or skills in teaching all the subjects. The educators’ lack of interest may affect learners’ performance because the educator may not do proper lesson planning and lesson presentation. The study employed Skemp's Theory of Relational and Instrumental Learning.The researcher has elicited the views of Foundation Phase educators on the challenges of teaching Mathematics through a case study design, in which two primary schools in the Ekurhuleni South-East Circuit had been involved. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with a sample of eight educators, two members of School Management Teams, and two curriculum advisors from district support educators in Mathematics to establish the challenges they encounter when teaching Mathematics in the Foundation Phase. The challenges encountered in the teaching of Mathematics vary across schools and often range from knowledge of pedagogical content, skill, professional training, attitudes, school environment, language, and background. The study found that, educators and learners would benefit greatly from the use of technology in the classroom, furthermore when learners receive the best instruction possible via the use of digital technology and given the fullest attention possible, they would inspire to reach their greatest potential. The study suggested further research and recommendations regarding educators, the schools and School Management Teams (SMTs), parents, and facilitators from the district.Item Embargo Groundwater quality and human health-risk assessment in health-care facilities around Vhembe District, Limpopo, South Africa(2025-09-05) Sadiki, Musiiwa Patricia; Edokpayi, Joshua N.; Street, ReneeWater quality has been associated with health outcomes globally. This research assessed the physicochemical and microbial quality of groundwater in health care facilities around Vhembe District, Limpopo Province, South Africa. For this study, nineteen sampling locations were chosen from among the many local municipalities in the Vhembe District, and sampling was conducted throughout both the rainy and dry seasons. During the various seasons, physicochemical characteristics like turbidity, salinity, pH, EC, and TDS varied as follows: (35.46-1780 μS/cm (dry), 126.38-1468 μS/cm (wet), 25.5-1267 mg/L (dry), 67.5-1195 mg/L (wet), 7-8.5 (dry), 7-9 (wet), 0-4.5 NTU (dry), 0-6 NTU (wet), and 42.31-899 ppm (dry), 37.28-706.5 ppm (wet) respectively with some samples exceeding the recommended limit standard as per SANS guideline. Total coliform levels ranged between 2-90 cfu/100 mL in the dry season and 1-128 cfu/100 mL in the wet season. E. coli varied between 0-13 cfu/100 mL) in the dry and 0-39 cfu/100mL in the wet, respectively. Major anions such as SO4, NO2, PO4, recorded levels within the recommended limit of the South African National Standards (SANS), however, anions such as F, Cl, and NO3 in some of the samples did not comply. Major cations (Na, Mg, K, and Ca) did not comply for some samples except for K which complied in all samples. The following metals - Al, V, Cr, Mn, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Se, Cd, Sb, Hg, Pb, and U - were within the recommended limit except for Fe which was above the recommended limit as per SANS 241. According to the water quality index (WQI), during the wet season, 16.66% of the water was extremely poor, 38.88% was poor and 44.44% was good. 16.66% was poor, 72.22% was decent, and 11.11% were excellent during the dry season. The Piper Diagram revealed three hydro-chemical facies for both seasons. Calcium chloride water type (72.22 % in wet, and 83.33 % in dry season), mixed water type (5.5 %) and sodium chloride water type (22.22 % in wet and 11.11% in dry season). The Durov Plot revealed that most samples were in the ion exchange zone and very few were in the mixing zone or dissolution. The study area's groundwater Gibbs diagram, for both seasons demonstrated that evaporation mostly regulated the hydrogeochemical processes. The average dosage of E. coli ranged from 0 – 3.16 and 0 - 0.24 for wet and dry respectively, therefore, chances of getting infection daily, was in the range of 0 – 7.6 % for wet and 0 – 6.7 % in the dry season. The probability of getting infection annually ranged as from 0 – 100%. Water from health-care facilities around Vhembe District should be treated before consumption.Item Embargo Wasted Water Quality, Economic Valuation and Development of a Water Loss Framework at the University of Venda(2025-09-05) Netshitanini, Mahanyele; Edokpayi, J. N.; Adeeyo, A. O.The study investigates the extent of water wastage and its management at the University of Venda, by assessing several factors related to water losses, costs, quality, and the development of a water-loss management framework. The study objectives were achieved through questionnaires which were distributed among students, staff, and maintenance personnel, to gather data on water usage and management. Field observations identified key areas where water was being wasted, especially in places like student residences. Water samples were collected from identified hotspots, with measurements taken based on amounts and time to calculate the rate of water wastage. Water quality tests included physical, chemical, microbial, and heavy metal analyses, to determine whether that the water quality met the South African National Standards (SANS) and those of World Health Organisation (WHO). The results demonstrated that water was wasted most during students’ residency periods (when students were not on recess). A total of 2,511,351 litres per year were lost during the academic terms, while 52,710 litres per year were wasted during the recess periods. The estimated financial loss due to water wastage was R 50,227 during student residency periods and R 1,054 during recess, based on water tariffs from the Thulamela Municipality. The quality of the wasted water was found to meet SANS and WHO standards, with tests confirming the water was safe in terms of being free from microbial content and chemical composition. Based on this picture, a monitoring application was developed to help track and manage water wastage. The app automatically captures geolocations of water wastage on the campus and allows individuals to report incidents of water wastage by submitting photos or short videos (15-30 seconds). The study highlights the extent of water wastage occurring at the University of Venda, especially when students are present, and proposes a technological solution through the monitoring app to help reduce these losses. Additionally, the water wasted was found to be of good quality, therefore, representing financial and resource concerns.Item Embargo Mode of Occurrence and Origin of Iron Ore Deposits of Ga-Nchabeleng Area, Sekhukhune District, Limpopo Province, South Africa(2025-09-05) Maponya, Julia Mapula; Mundalamo, H. R.; Ogola, J. S.The study area falls under the Sekhukhune District Municipality of the Limpopo province within Rustenburg layered suite of the Bushveld Igneous complex. The aim of the study was to investigate the petrological and mineralogical characteristics of gabbronorite and iron ore as well as to establish the geological environment of the ore formation so as to ascertain the mode of occurrence and origin of the iron ore deposit. Geological mapping was conducted so as to confirm the host rocks and establish the relationship between the host rocks and orebodies. The map revealed the distribution of the rocks within the study area and the geological setting of the iron ore. The iron ore was found to be localized within gabbronorite. Iron ore occurred as veins, veinlets, stockworks, stringers, and finger-like structures. The geological structures acted as conduits for the ferruginous melts that finally formed the iron ore. Petrographic study revealed the presence of feldspar, mainly plagioclase in gabbronorite, and minor concentration of oxides mainly magnetite. Some rock specimens revealed a high concentration of magnetite especially those located near the host rock-orebody contact. Reflected light microscopy was done to establish the mineralogy of iron ore and to ascertain the relationship of the ore minerals. The main ore minerals were magnetite and hematite with minor ilmenite. The XRD results revealed high content of magnetite (92 %), followed by hematite (61%), then ilmenite (12%). The XRF results revealed gabbronorite with minimum and maximum FeO3 wt% of 1.31% and 44.22% respectively, while minimum and maximum values of FeO3 wt% in magnetite ore samples were found to be 43.38% and 54.55% respectively with an average value of 52.36%. The magnetite registered high concentration values of Zn (221 ppm), Ni (225 ppm), Co (163 ppm), Cr (503 ppm) and V (8981 ppm). The study concluded that the iron ore is hosted by intermediate to felsic igneous rocks which were found to be gabbronorite. Ore bodies formed stockworks that were randomly oriented as veins, veinlets, and stringers associated with fractional crystallization of the layered complexes. The magnetite ore within the study area was of good grade with average values above 50% and rich in V, Cr, Ni, Zn and Co. The study recommends further detailed exploration of iron ore in the area, applying techniques such as geophysical methods and borehole drilling leading to resource evaluation.Item Embargo Assessment of potential health risks of domestic water sources in Matatani Village, Limpopo Province, South Africa(2025-09-05) Ndou, Pfunzo; Makungo, R.; Malima, T. P.Poor water quality is associated with adverse health outcomes worldwide. In many developing countries, access to clean and safe water remains limited, forcing individuals to depend on available water sources despite their poor quality. This study evaluated the potential human health risks associated with domestic water sources at Matatani Village, Limpopo Province, South Africa. Field observations were conducted to identify the available water sources and the potential contaminants present for each source. Water samples were collected during both wet and dry seasons from the primary sources used by the residents, including boreholes, springs, and a river. Rainwater samples from various roof types were also collected during the rainfall season. The physical parameters including pH, electrical conductivity (EC), and total dissolved solids (TDS) were measured using standardized multi-meter. Turbidity was measured using turbidity meter. Microbiological parameters such as total coliforms and Escherichia coli (E.coli) were analyzed using membrane filtration method. Metals such as sodium (Na), magnesium (Mg), potassium (K), iron (Fe), lead (Pb), manganese (Mn), cadmium (Cd), arsenic (As), aluminium (Al), copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) were analyzed using inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrophotometer (ICP-OES) . The non-metals such as chloride (Cl), fluoride (F), phosphate (PO4) and sulphate (SO4) were analyzed using the DR 3900 Laboratory spectrophotometer. Health risk assessment was conducted for non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risk through ingestion based on the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) method. The pH for groundwater and river water was within the recommended guideline. The turbidity and TDS were above the guidelines for river and groundwater. For rainwater water, the EC and TDS were within the recommended guidelines while the turbidity was above the recommended guideline. The total coliform and E.coli were both above the recommended guidelines for the majority of the samples. Metals such as As, Mn, Cd, Pb, Zn, Mn, Al, and Fe were above the recommended guidelines for surface and groundwater and rainwater, respectively. They metals ranged from 0.60 to 6.88, 1.54 to 6.51, 0 to 16.61, 1.63 to 7.63, 1.54 to 10.59, 4.22 to 5.74, 0.36 to 7.86 for As, Mn, Cd, Pb, Zn, Mn, Al, and Fe, for all sources respectively. The presence of these metals in water sources can cause adverse effects on human health. Non-metals such as from 0.1 to 5.7 and 0 to 89 for F and SO4, they were within the recommended guidelines for groundwater, river water, and rainwater. The non-carcinogenic hazard index (HI) ranged from 4.20 to 18.3 for river and groundwater while it ranged from 0.52 to 3.11 for rainwater for both adults and children, respectively. The HI for river and groundwater was greater than 1 for children and adults indicating significant health risk. The HI for children only exceeded 1 for rainwater meaning that the children are at risk. The carcinogenic risk for Pb, Cd and As ranged between 0.09 to 4.26 and 0.09 to 0.96 for groundwater, river water, and rainwater for adults and children, respectively. Identified microbial health risks include nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, cholera and typhoid fever. These findings highlighted the severe risk of diseases for the residents of Matatani Village. They also confirmed that water in Matatani Village is unsafe for human use. It is recommended that residents have to use the sources of water such as municipal water which consistently show lower contamination levels and boil water before use to minimize contamination risk. Residents have to minimize pollution by implementing stricter regulations to reduce the discharge of various elements into the environment.Item Embargo Hydrological modelling for estimating water availability for irrigation supply in selected schemes in Nzhelele Area(2025-09-05) Mbaimbai, Vhahangwele; Makungo, R.; Ndiritu, J. G.South Africa is one of the driest countries in the world, and its smallholder irrigation schemes - particularly in semi-arid regions like Nzhelele in Limpopo Province - are under growing pressure due to water scarcity and climate variability. Many of these schemes suffer from poor monitoring of water inflows and a lack of reliable data on crop irrigation needs. This study aimed to quantify irrigation water availability and determine whether current water resources can meet the crop water demands of three smallholder schemes - Mandiwana, Raliphaswa, and Mamuhohi. Objectives included simulating streamflow using hydrological modelling, estimating crop water requirements, and identifying which crops are sustainable under existing water supply conditions. The Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) was used to simulate streamflow from 1987 to 2014 using daily hydrometeorological data. Calibration and validation were performed over two distinct periods: 1991–2000 and 2001–2009. Reference evapotranspiration (ETo) was calculated using the Hargreaves equation due to limited data, and crop coefficients (Kc) were used to estimate daily water needs for maize, sweet potato, groundnuts, and green beans. A 60% conveyance efficiency was applied to assess actual deliverable water. The model showed that maize and sweet potato had manageable water demands 540 mm and 475 mm in the dry season, respectively, while groundnuts and green beans had higher peak requirements that exceeded available supply. The SWAT model performed well, the R2, NSE and PBIAS values for calibration and validation ranged from 0.78, 0.56, and 7.7%, and 0.60, 0.56, and -8.3%, respectively. These findings can guide crop selection and water allocation, offering practical insights for improving smallholder irrigation planning in water-limited environments.Item Embargo Evaluation of strata conditions and performance of support systems of the Emerald Shaft Gold Mine in Gauteng Province of South Africa(2025-09-05) Mphaphuli, Sathiel; Amponsah-Dacosta, Francis; Mhlongo, Sphiwe EmmanuelThe creation of underground excavations causes disturbances in the rock mass, leading to geotechnical uncertainty and increased risk of fall of ground or backbreak. The incompetency of the rock mass, high tensile fractures, and concentration of horizontal virgin and mining-induced stresses pose significant threats to both safety and production, highlighting the need for effective strata control measures. This study aimed to evaluate the strata conditions and performance of support systems of the Emerald Shaft Gold Mine to ensure long-term stability. The objectives of the study included reviewing the mine design and layout, determining geological conditions and their influence on the rock strata, examining the performance of the support systems used in the raise and production stopes of the Emerald Shaft Gold Mine., and recommending appropriate strategies for strata control. A comprehensive geotechnical investigation was conducted at the Emerald Shaft Gold Mine to characterize the rock mass and inform mine design. The study applied a multi-disciplinary approach including field profiling, geological and geotechnical mapping, field test and laboratory analysis, field observations, and analytical and numerical modelling. The investigation involved a detailed analysis of rock mechanic data, geological conditions, and raise and stope support systems to evaluate the stability of the mine. The study revealed complex geological conditions, variable rock competency, and distinct mechanical properties. The rock mass quality was compromised by regional geological features, such as dykes and faults. The findings highlighted the importance of site-specific characterization, comprehensive support design, and targeted support measures to ensure safe and efficient mining operations. The study also identified areas prone to rockfalls, fall of ground incidents, and stope instability, emphasizing the need for robust support design and regular monitoring. The study concluded that a tailored support design approach, considering tendon performance, ground conditions, and stress loading, is essential to ensure optimal ground stability and prevent rockfalls. The recommended support measures include the installation of grouted dowels, pre-stressed elongates, and fibre-reinforced shotcrete. Regular monitoring and maintenance of support systems are crucial to ensure their effectiveness and prevent accidents. The study's findings and recommendations provide valuable insights for mine design, support strategies, and safety protocols at the Emerald Shaft Gold Mine, and can be applied to similar mining operations. This study contributed significantly to the understanding of strata conditions and support systems in Emerald Shaft Gold Mine. The research provided new insights into the complex geological conditions and variable rock competency of the mine, highlighting the importance of site-specific characterization and tailored support design. The findings of the study and recommendations offered valuable contributions to the existing knowledge on strata control and support systems, providing a framework for improving mine safety and efficiency. Specifically, this research demonstrated the effectiveness of a multi-disciplinary approach in evaluating rock mass quality and designing optimal support systems and highlighted the need for regular monitoring and maintenance to ensure the effectiveness of support measures.Item Open Access Assessing sustainable water, energy and food nexus smart innovations, technologies and practices in Luvuvhu and Nzhelele River catchments areas, Vhembe District Municipality, Limpopo province, South Africa.(2025-09-05) Mphaphuli, Phindulo; Makungo, R.; Madzivhandila, T.; Musetsho, K. D.The water-energy-food (WEF) nexus aids in comprehending the complex and ever-evolving connections between these three essential resources. Climate change and slow economic growth are triggering an increase in pressure on global WEF resources. These present an increase in levels of trade-offs and conflicts among the three resources. The implementation of the WEF nexus can improve resource security and promote sustainable development. However, its widespread adoption has been limited due to the absence of concrete strategies for its practical application. This study assessed the status of WEF nexus smart technologies, innovation and practices in Luvuvhu and Nzhelele River Catchments Areas, Limpopo Province, South Africa. Subsequently, face-to-face surveys were undertaken from 9 July to 30 November 2022 for individual households and focus group discussions (FGD) were conducted within communities under the Luvuvhu River Catchment Areas (Sambandou, Malavuwe and Tshakhuma); and Nzhelele River Catchment Areas (Siloam, Phadzima and Khalavha). A random sampling technique was utilized to select 93 households from a total of 180 targeted households. Key Informant Interviews (KII) were conducted with representatives from the local Department of Water and Sanitation, Eskom, the local Department of Agriculture and Rural Development, as well as local radio stations. During these interviews, data was collected through interview-administered questionnaires. The data obtained from the questionnaires was analyzed using IBM SPSS Statistics version 29, which facilitated the generation of response frequencies. Additionally, the ArcGIS Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW) spatial interpolation method was employed for spatial analysis. The results indicated that the sustainability of the water-energy-food (WEF) nexus depends on the resilience of each resource individually as well as within their respective sectors. The use of water and food smart innovations and practices was found to be slightly higher in the Nzhelele River Catchments Areas than it is in the Luvuvhu River Catchment Areas, with 55.9% (n= 55) and 38.7% (n= 36) of the respondents within the Nzhelele area and 47.3% (n= 44) and 31.2% (n= 29) in the Luvuvhu area using water and food smart innovations and practices, respectively. Moreover, the use of energy innovations and practices was found to be slightly lower in the Nzhelele area s (53.8%; n= 50) than it is in the Luvuvhu areas (59.1%; n= 55). However, most of the respondents in both study areas did not understand how WEF nexus works, whereas some practiced it based on the little knowledge they got from schools, workplaces and the internet. Results from assessing the influence of hydrology on the use of WEF Nexus smart innovations, technologies and practices showed that hydrology is a foundational element in the WEF Nexus as hydrological factors such as water quality, temperature variability and annual rainfall are very crucial in WEF Nexus, influencing the use of smart innovations and practices that could in turn improve the well-being of residents, the productivity of local agricultural and food systems while enhancing the sustainable management of water, energy, and food resources. The study results show that the use of water, energy and food in areas around Luvuvhu River Catchment and Nzhelele River Catchment are significantly impacted by hydrology. It was also noted that a significant percentage (90%) of the respondents reported that they depend on agriculture for survival, which is highly affected by hydrological conditions. Knowledge about the WEF nexus needs to be transferred to people in rural areas through awareness and education. The results of this study can serve as a useful reference for developing regions to improve management of resources, facilitate sustainable development, and fill the existing knowledge gaps towards understanding how promising the WEF nexus innovations and practices are, and how these can be realized at the local community and household levels. Thus, potentially reducing the shortage of WEF resources.Item Embargo Use and management of energy resources from Water, Energy, and Food (WEF) nexus perspective: The case of Vhembe District Municipality (VDM), Limpopo Province(2025-09-05) Mudau, Mulalo; Makungo, R.; Volenzo, T. E.Water, Energy, and Food (WEF) are necessity resources required by human beings for sustenance, social, and economic development. Energy is at the centre of the WEF nexus due to its dual role as a driver of economic activity and the largest contributor to global warming and climate change risks. In response, most countries following the 2015 Paris Agreement on climate action have adopted renewable energy (herein referred to as smart energy practices and innovations) policies to mitigate the adverse impacts of energy on climate change, as well as address health and environmental crises. Such measures and policies are also pursued to enhance energy security and economic prosperity. Though South Africa is one of the countries that has adopted an ambitious renewable energy policy, there is a paucity of information on factors influencing the adoption of renewable based energy resources and potential outcomes at the household level, where most of the envisioned policy objectives are expected to be pursued and realised. The current study was conducted in the Nzhelele and Luvuvhu River catchment areas in the Vhembe District Municipality (VDM) of Limpopo Province. A mixed methods approach was used to gather information on energy access and use at the household level through household questionnaires and triangulated through key informant interviews (KII) and Focus Group Discussions (FGDs). Economic analysis of existing energy practices and innovations was analysed using a Net Present Value (NPV) analysis, and environmental performance assessed through Partial Life Cycle Analysis (LCA). Analysis of data was done in Excel and IBMR SPSSR Statistics version 28 based on weight estimation and multinomial logistic regression approaches. Biomass and mains electricity are the main sources of energy, with energy stacking being a universal strategy observed in majority of households. Renewable energy sources such as solar energy are rarely used at the household level. Approximately 62% of the respondents cited lack of knowledge (inadequate access to information) on the smart energy technologies and their availability as the most significant limiting factor in their adoption. This was followed by poor reliability of smart energy technologies at about 53%, cost saving potential at about 45%, and availability of finance at about 48%. For those in agriculture, market access at about 21% and return on investment at about 19% is an important consideration in the choice of smart energy technologies. Ease of availability and cost of energy type at 35% and 39% respectively were the main factors likely to influence the choice of smart energy innovations. Cost of alternatives at about 13%, load shedding at about 14 %, and socio-economic lockins i.e., culture and past policies at about 12% of the respondents. Employment and to a greater extent, total household income status, emerge as the only factor that significantly (P< 0.005) influences the adoption of smart energy innovations. The use of biomass and LPG are significant predictors of reliability in existing energy innovation. Though renewable energy sources such as solar can reduce environmental footprints, the initial cost and intermittent supply due to weather constrain their adoption. The adverse impact of non-renewable resources such as biomass on health and environment are inherent through higher emission levels. The same applies to coal generated electricity. However, the fact that such sources are cheaper and easily available due to economic lockins also constrains the transition to cleaner energy sources at household level. In conclusion, WEF approach can inform sustainability transition and energy security with economic empowerment and awareness creation, including access to higher education and income earning opportunities being more likely to mediate the transition to smart energy at household level.Item Embargo Spatial variation of historical and future seasonal rainfall trends in the Luvuvhu River Catchment, Limpopo Province, South Africa(2025-09-05) Dzaga, A; Makungo, R.; Nkuna, T. R.This study focused on determining the spatial variation of historic and future seasonal rainfall trends in the Luvuvhu River Catchment. Trend analysis studies hold considerable scientific and practical importance in assessing hydrological hazards and soil erosion monitoring. Rainfall trends are a valuable tool for assessing the impacts of climate change and offering guidance on how to mitigate its negative effects on agriculture. Rainfall in the Luvuvhu River Catchment exhibits significant variability. Alterations in precipitation patterns and trends can lead to an increase in the frequency of extreme events such as drought and floods. Rainfall data was sourced from the Department of Water and Sanitation, South African Weather Services and the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project six. The Innovative Trend Analysis (ITA) and Auto-regressive Moving Average (ARIMA) were used to compute historical and future seasonal rainfall trends for a period of about 135 years from 1950 to 2085. The standard deviation, coefficient of variation, seasonality index and kriging were used to determine spatial variations. The ITA and ARIMA results showed dominantly decreasing trends during summer and all other seasons for both historical and future rainfall data. The results from the ITA method are in agreement with the results of the ARIMA method. The homogeneity test using the Standard Normal Homogeineity Test and the Pettit test was done for the rainfall data. The Standardised Precipitation Index (SPI) was used to check the possible causes of the changes during dry and wet seasons. The historic results of the standard deviation range from 11 in winter to 463 in summer, the coefficient of variation from 0.401 to 1.037 and the seasonality index from 0.02 in winter to 2.358 in summer. The future results indicate that the standard deviation ranges from 2 in winter to 86 in summer, the coefficient of variation from 0.286 to 4.120 and the seasonality index from 0.09 in winter to 3.950 in summer. The kriging results show high variability in the north east side of the catchment where stations such as the Pafuri and Punda Maria are situated for both the historic future seasonal trends . The breaks or changes from the homogeneity tests occurred in the years 1962, 1975, 1979, 1982, 1986, 1987,1996, 2005, 2008 and 2012. The results of the two methods compared fairly well. The SPI results indicated that causes of changes were indicated by breaks periods of flooding and periods of drought on the data that occurred in the years 1975, 2000,1990, 2046, 2036, 2076, 2043 and 2073. Trend analysis and forecasting for the catchment using satellite data is recommended in order to compare the results of the current study and other studies that have been done in the catchment. The results in this study indicate that there is a dominant decreasing trend in the catchment, it is therefore recommended that a plan be developed for efficient and sustainable water use, localized climate adaptation strategies be developed and further research be done expanding on the current study.Item Embargo The assessment of water supply system efficiency and water quality in Standerton, Lekwa Municipality, Mpumalanga, South Africa(2025-09-05) Shikwambana, Pamlah Patience; Makungo, Rachel; Sengani, BenMost municipalities in South Africa face significant challenges in managing their water treatment plants effectively, often due to a lack of technical expertise, insufficient staffing and poor maintenance planning. These result in poor water quality, frequent supply interruptions and failure to comply with regulatory standards. Furthermore, difficulties in retaining skilled personnel and misallocation of resources exacerbate the problem, exposing communities to health risks and unreliable water services that undermine sustainable water supply efforts. This study evaluated the efficiency of the water supply system and assessed water quality at the Standerton Water Treatment Plant (SWTP) in Lekwa Local Municipality, Mpumalanga, South Africa. The assessment focused on operational performance, distribution effectiveness and compliance with national and international water quality standards. Data were collected through field observations, water meter readings and five years of water quality data obtained from the Department of Water and Sanitation (DWS) Mpumalanga from 2016 to 2020. Efficiency analysis involved comparing water quantity against demand, quantifying water losses and assessing distribution reliability. Water quality was evaluated by comparing measured parameters to guidelines set by the World Health Organization (WHO), South African National Standard (SANS-241), and Department of Water Affairs (DWA). Parameters analyzed included microbiological indicators such as Escherichia coli and total coliforms, as well as physicochemical variables like pH, turbidity, free chlorine, electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS), manganese (Mn), and iron (Fe). The results showed that pH, EC, and TDS consistently met the acceptable limits throughout the five-year period, indicating stable performance in these aspects. However, free chlorine, turbidity, manganese and iron persistently exceeded regulatory limits, signaling systemic issues within the treatment process. These ongoing exceedances point to challenges such as inadequate chemical dosing, poor filtration, ineffective disinfection and possible contamination within the distribution network. Of particular concern was the detection of E. coli, suggesting faecal contamination and increased risk of waterborne diseases. The elevated turbidity, Mn and Fe levels also affected water aesthetics, leading to consumer complaints and diminished trust in the municipal water supply. Operational challenges identified include aging infrastructure, poor maintenance practices, inaccuracies in chemical dosing and delayed responses to equipment failures such as malfunctioning pumps and burst pipelines. The plant operates beyond its designed capacity; although licensed for 27 ML/day with a design capacity of 37 ML/day, SWTP treated 43 ML/day while the estimated demand was approximately 45 ML/day. This overcapacity strains the plant, contributing to the suboptimal treatment performance. Additionally, the plant did not comply with regulatory requirements mandating the measurement of critical parameters pH, turbidity and EC at two-hour intervals, due to a lack of necessary analytical equipment. Staffing issues were prevalent, with many process controllers lacking formal training and qualifications necessary for effective plant management. The study also highlighted real-world impacts on local businesses, such as Goldie Chicken, which experiences water outages lasting up to two days per week. These interruptions have resulted in reduced production, workforce retrenchment and the inability to meet market demand. To improve water service delivery, it is imperative for the municipality to invest in upgrading water treatment infrastructure, ensure that plant personnel meet minimum qualification standards and implement continuous training programs to build technical capacity. Strengthening operational management and maintenance practices is essential to achieving regulatory compliance, safeguarding public health and securing a sustainable water supply for the Standerton community.Item Embargo A Comparative Study on the Efficacy of Modified Clay Soil for the Decolouration of Acidic and Basic Textile Dyes: A Case Study(2025-09-05) Chauke, Livingstone; Gumbo, J. R.; Ngulube, T.Dyes play a crucial role in the production of various products, including paper, plastics, and leather. However, their release into the environment leads to pollution and poses health risks to both humans and animals. Therefore, it is essential to treat dye-containing effluents before they are discharged into the environment. This study employed a cost-effective method to remove dyes from wastewater by utilizing natural clay as an adsorbent. The efficacy of Mn²⁺/Al³⁺ oxide-modified Mukondeni black clay soil (smectite) in removing acidic (Methyl Orange, MO) and basic (Crystal Violet, CV) textile dyes was evaluated. A 1:3 modified smectite ratio was identified as the most effective adsorbent. Characterization using X-ray Fluorescence (XRF), Brunauer-Emmet-Teller (BET), X-ray Diffraction (XRD), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS), Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR), and Point of Zero Charge (PZC) revealed that Modified-SMT contained 18.42% Al₂O₃ and 61.08% SiO₂, had a surface area of 35.30 m²/g, and featured functional groups such as C–O, C–O–C, and O–H, with a PZC at pH 4.30. Maximum dye removal efficiencies were recorded at 91.95% for MO after 90 min under the conditions (initial dye concentration = 20 mg/L, temperature = 30 °C, contact time = 90 minutes, shaking speed = 250 rpm, solution volume = 30 mL, and an adsorbent mass = 2 g). For CV, an efficiency of 96.35% was achieved after 30 minutes under conditions (initial dye concentration = 20 mg/L, temperature = 30 °C, contact time = 30 minutes, shaking speed = 250 rpm, solution volume = 30 mL, and an adsorbent mass = 0.1 g). Adsorption isotherm analysis indicated that MO followed a multilayer mechanism on heterogeneous surfaces (Freundlich model), while CV exhibited monolayer adsorption on homogeneous surfaces (Langmuir model). Kinetic studies confirmed pseudo-second-order behaviour. Thermodynamic parameters Δ𝐻 = - 47.72 KJ/mol and Δ𝑆 = -0.17 J/mol/K showed that MO adsorption was non-spontaneous and exothermic (ΔG = 12. 64 KJ/mol for 80 °C), whereas Δ𝐻 = 22.64 KJ/mol and Δ𝑆 = 0.09 J/mol/K for CV adsorption was spontaneous and endothermic (ΔG = -9.55 KJ/mol for 80 °C). The adsorbent retained its efficiency over four regeneration cycles, demonstrating its suitability as a sustainable and effective solution for dye removal in wastewater treatment. It can be concluded that Mn²⁺/Al³⁺ oxide-modified Mukondeni black clay soil (smectite) can remove both MO and CV dye from aqueous solution.Item Embargo Performance assessment of rural water supply system: A case study of Matatani Village, Musina Local Municipality, South Africa(2025-09-05) Tshivhase, Elelwani; Makungo, R.Assessment of the performance of a water supply system is essential to ensure its effectiveness in supplying water to households. The study assessed the performance of rural water supply system using Matatani Village as a case study. Field observations were conducted to identify existing water supply sources. These were mapped in Quantum Geographical Information Systems to determine the spatial distribution of the water sources and their proximity to households. A questionnaire survey was conducted to gather community perceptions of the water supply system. Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 25 was used to analyse questionnaire survey data. Water quality sampling was conducted from December 2023 to May 2024, covering both dry and wet seasons. Sampling locations included Borehole 1 (BH1), Borehole 2 (BH2), River Upstream (RU), River Downstream (RD), the Municipal Tap (MT), and Spring water. Water samples were analysed for physical, chemical, and microbiological parameters. Extech EC500 Pocket Meter and Extech TB400 Turbidity Meter were used to measure physical parameters. Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission Spectroscopy and DR3900 Spectrophotometer were used to analyse metals and non-metals ions, respectively. Metals and non-metals which were analysed include calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), potassium (K), sodium (Na), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), cadmium (Cd), arsenic (As), iron (Fe), lead (Pb), sulphate (SO4), chlorine (Cl), phosphate (PO4) and fluoride (F). Microbiological parameters including Escherichia coliform (E. coli) and total coliform were analysed using membrane filtration method. Groundwater yield and water requirements were estimated for the months of December 2023 to May 2024. These were compared to the estimated water requirements at basic, intermediate and optimal service levels. Key performance indicators on reliability and accessibility were compared to benchmarks to assess the performance status of the water supply system. The socioeconomic profile of Matatani Village is dominated by young population, with 31.4% aged 18–29 years. The high proportion of youth suggests that water demand and usage patterns are influenced by an active population engaged in both domestic and economic activities. Matatani Village faces economic vulnerabilities, with 68.6% of the population relying on grants and a high unemployment rate, with 75.7% of the population unemployed. The high unemployment status indicates significant economic hardship, which can limit the community’s ability to contribute financially to water system maintenance. The findings from field observations and a questionnaire survey indicated that the community relies on diverse sources, including rivers, springs, boreholes, communal taps, rainwater, and municipal water tankers. BH3 and BH4 are non-functional, while BH1 remains operational but is situated far from the households, making access challenging for residents. BH2 was initially designed to support both Mbodi and Matatani residents, but supplying water consistently to Matatani Village has proven challenging. The Mutale River and springs are vulnerable to contamination, while water from municipal taps is infrequently available. The results indicated that only 15.7% of households use 1400 liters per household per week. About 37.1% use between 350–700 liters, 24.3% access 175–350 liters, and 7.1% receive less than 175 liters per week, all of which were below the benchmark of 1500 liters per household per week. The residents of Matatani face challenges in accessing water from their preferred main source. The travelling distances to BH1 varied from 536 m to 1.73 km while the river varied from 3.80 km to 6.56 km to households and were above the benchmark of 100 m. Majority of the respondents (81.4%) experience frequent water supply disruptions indicating poor reliability of the water sources. Groundwater yields varied from 61714.29 to 77142.86 L/d and were adequate to meet the water requirements of 7000, 14000 and 28000 L/d for basic, intermediate and optimal access levels. While most physical water quality parameters complied with water quality guidelines, turbidity for groundwater from BH1 did not meet the compliance standard. Most of the microbial and chemical parameters did not meet the compliance standards for water quality guidelines. Some of the microbial and chemical water quality parameters that exceeded the guidelines include E. coli, total coliform, Al, Zn, Mn, Pb, Cd and Fe in all water sources. Failure to comply with water quality guidelines for chemical and microbial water quality parameters compromised the safety of the water for domestic use. Although half of the population perceive community engagement in water supply management as beneficial, only 1.4% actively participate in paying for these services, which may affect the sustainability of the water supply system. The performance assessment of the Matatani Village water supply system highlighted challenges related to accessibility and reliability, thereby limiting its effectiveness in meeting community needs resulting in poor performance. The study recommends implementation of improved water distribution systems and rehabilitation of BH3, which will increase the water supply and alleviate pressure on other sources. Strengthening community participation through new water management committees and training programs is also recommended for ensuring the long-term sustainability of the system.