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Item Embargo Mode of Occurrence and Origin of Iron Ore Deposits of Ga-Nchabeleng Area, Sekhukhune District, Limpopo Province, South Africa(2025-09-05) Maponya, Julia Mapula; Mundalamo, H. R.; Ogola, J. S.The study area falls under the Sekhukhune District Municipality of the Limpopo province within Rustenburg layered suite of the Bushveld Igneous complex. The aim of the study was to investigate the petrological and mineralogical characteristics of gabbronorite and iron ore as well as to establish the geological environment of the ore formation so as to ascertain the mode of occurrence and origin of the iron ore deposit. Geological mapping was conducted so as to confirm the host rocks and establish the relationship between the host rocks and orebodies. The map revealed the distribution of the rocks within the study area and the geological setting of the iron ore. The iron ore was found to be localized within gabbronorite. Iron ore occurred as veins, veinlets, stockworks, stringers, and finger-like structures. The geological structures acted as conduits for the ferruginous melts that finally formed the iron ore. Petrographic study revealed the presence of feldspar, mainly plagioclase in gabbronorite, and minor concentration of oxides mainly magnetite. Some rock specimens revealed a high concentration of magnetite especially those located near the host rock-orebody contact. Reflected light microscopy was done to establish the mineralogy of iron ore and to ascertain the relationship of the ore minerals. The main ore minerals were magnetite and hematite with minor ilmenite. The XRD results revealed high content of magnetite (92 %), followed by hematite (61%), then ilmenite (12%). The XRF results revealed gabbronorite with minimum and maximum FeO3 wt% of 1.31% and 44.22% respectively, while minimum and maximum values of FeO3 wt% in magnetite ore samples were found to be 43.38% and 54.55% respectively with an average value of 52.36%. The magnetite registered high concentration values of Zn (221 ppm), Ni (225 ppm), Co (163 ppm), Cr (503 ppm) and V (8981 ppm). The study concluded that the iron ore is hosted by intermediate to felsic igneous rocks which were found to be gabbronorite. Ore bodies formed stockworks that were randomly oriented as veins, veinlets, and stringers associated with fractional crystallization of the layered complexes. The magnetite ore within the study area was of good grade with average values above 50% and rich in V, Cr, Ni, Zn and Co. The study recommends further detailed exploration of iron ore in the area, applying techniques such as geophysical methods and borehole drilling leading to resource evaluation.Item Embargo Assessment of potential health risks of domestic water sources in Matatani Village, Limpopo Province, South Africa(2025-09-05) Ndou, Pfunzo; Makungo, R.; Malima, T. P.Poor water quality is associated with adverse health outcomes worldwide. In many developing countries, access to clean and safe water remains limited, forcing individuals to depend on available water sources despite their poor quality. This study evaluated the potential human health risks associated with domestic water sources at Matatani Village, Limpopo Province, South Africa. Field observations were conducted to identify the available water sources and the potential contaminants present for each source. Water samples were collected during both wet and dry seasons from the primary sources used by the residents, including boreholes, springs, and a river. Rainwater samples from various roof types were also collected during the rainfall season. The physical parameters including pH, electrical conductivity (EC), and total dissolved solids (TDS) were measured using standardized multi-meter. Turbidity was measured using turbidity meter. Microbiological parameters such as total coliforms and Escherichia coli (E.coli) were analyzed using membrane filtration method. Metals such as sodium (Na), magnesium (Mg), potassium (K), iron (Fe), lead (Pb), manganese (Mn), cadmium (Cd), arsenic (As), aluminium (Al), copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) were analyzed using inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrophotometer (ICP-OES) . The non-metals such as chloride (Cl), fluoride (F), phosphate (PO4) and sulphate (SO4) were analyzed using the DR 3900 Laboratory spectrophotometer. Health risk assessment was conducted for non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risk through ingestion based on the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) method. The pH for groundwater and river water was within the recommended guideline. The turbidity and TDS were above the guidelines for river and groundwater. For rainwater water, the EC and TDS were within the recommended guidelines while the turbidity was above the recommended guideline. The total coliform and E.coli were both above the recommended guidelines for the majority of the samples. Metals such as As, Mn, Cd, Pb, Zn, Mn, Al, and Fe were above the recommended guidelines for surface and groundwater and rainwater, respectively. They metals ranged from 0.60 to 6.88, 1.54 to 6.51, 0 to 16.61, 1.63 to 7.63, 1.54 to 10.59, 4.22 to 5.74, 0.36 to 7.86 for As, Mn, Cd, Pb, Zn, Mn, Al, and Fe, for all sources respectively. The presence of these metals in water sources can cause adverse effects on human health. Non-metals such as from 0.1 to 5.7 and 0 to 89 for F and SO4, they were within the recommended guidelines for groundwater, river water, and rainwater. The non-carcinogenic hazard index (HI) ranged from 4.20 to 18.3 for river and groundwater while it ranged from 0.52 to 3.11 for rainwater for both adults and children, respectively. The HI for river and groundwater was greater than 1 for children and adults indicating significant health risk. The HI for children only exceeded 1 for rainwater meaning that the children are at risk. The carcinogenic risk for Pb, Cd and As ranged between 0.09 to 4.26 and 0.09 to 0.96 for groundwater, river water, and rainwater for adults and children, respectively. Identified microbial health risks include nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, cholera and typhoid fever. These findings highlighted the severe risk of diseases for the residents of Matatani Village. They also confirmed that water in Matatani Village is unsafe for human use. It is recommended that residents have to use the sources of water such as municipal water which consistently show lower contamination levels and boil water before use to minimize contamination risk. Residents have to minimize pollution by implementing stricter regulations to reduce the discharge of various elements into the environment.Item Embargo Hydrological modelling for estimating water availability for irrigation supply in selected schemes in Nzhelele Area(2025-09-05) Mbaimbai, Vhahangwele; Makungo, R.; Ndiritu, J. G.South Africa is one of the driest countries in the world, and its smallholder irrigation schemes - particularly in semi-arid regions like Nzhelele in Limpopo Province - are under growing pressure due to water scarcity and climate variability. Many of these schemes suffer from poor monitoring of water inflows and a lack of reliable data on crop irrigation needs. This study aimed to quantify irrigation water availability and determine whether current water resources can meet the crop water demands of three smallholder schemes - Mandiwana, Raliphaswa, and Mamuhohi. Objectives included simulating streamflow using hydrological modelling, estimating crop water requirements, and identifying which crops are sustainable under existing water supply conditions. The Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) was used to simulate streamflow from 1987 to 2014 using daily hydrometeorological data. Calibration and validation were performed over two distinct periods: 1991–2000 and 2001–2009. Reference evapotranspiration (ETo) was calculated using the Hargreaves equation due to limited data, and crop coefficients (Kc) were used to estimate daily water needs for maize, sweet potato, groundnuts, and green beans. A 60% conveyance efficiency was applied to assess actual deliverable water. The model showed that maize and sweet potato had manageable water demands 540 mm and 475 mm in the dry season, respectively, while groundnuts and green beans had higher peak requirements that exceeded available supply. The SWAT model performed well, the R2, NSE and PBIAS values for calibration and validation ranged from 0.78, 0.56, and 7.7%, and 0.60, 0.56, and -8.3%, respectively. These findings can guide crop selection and water allocation, offering practical insights for improving smallholder irrigation planning in water-limited environments.Item Embargo Evaluation of strata conditions and performance of support systems of the Emerald Shaft Gold Mine in Gauteng Province of South Africa(2025-09-05) Mphaphuli, Sathiel; Amponsah-Dacosta, Francis; Mhlongo, Sphiwe EmmanuelThe creation of underground excavations causes disturbances in the rock mass, leading to geotechnical uncertainty and increased risk of fall of ground or backbreak. The incompetency of the rock mass, high tensile fractures, and concentration of horizontal virgin and mining-induced stresses pose significant threats to both safety and production, highlighting the need for effective strata control measures. This study aimed to evaluate the strata conditions and performance of support systems of the Emerald Shaft Gold Mine to ensure long-term stability. The objectives of the study included reviewing the mine design and layout, determining geological conditions and their influence on the rock strata, examining the performance of the support systems used in the raise and production stopes of the Emerald Shaft Gold Mine., and recommending appropriate strategies for strata control. A comprehensive geotechnical investigation was conducted at the Emerald Shaft Gold Mine to characterize the rock mass and inform mine design. The study applied a multi-disciplinary approach including field profiling, geological and geotechnical mapping, field test and laboratory analysis, field observations, and analytical and numerical modelling. The investigation involved a detailed analysis of rock mechanic data, geological conditions, and raise and stope support systems to evaluate the stability of the mine. The study revealed complex geological conditions, variable rock competency, and distinct mechanical properties. The rock mass quality was compromised by regional geological features, such as dykes and faults. The findings highlighted the importance of site-specific characterization, comprehensive support design, and targeted support measures to ensure safe and efficient mining operations. The study also identified areas prone to rockfalls, fall of ground incidents, and stope instability, emphasizing the need for robust support design and regular monitoring. The study concluded that a tailored support design approach, considering tendon performance, ground conditions, and stress loading, is essential to ensure optimal ground stability and prevent rockfalls. The recommended support measures include the installation of grouted dowels, pre-stressed elongates, and fibre-reinforced shotcrete. Regular monitoring and maintenance of support systems are crucial to ensure their effectiveness and prevent accidents. The study's findings and recommendations provide valuable insights for mine design, support strategies, and safety protocols at the Emerald Shaft Gold Mine, and can be applied to similar mining operations. This study contributed significantly to the understanding of strata conditions and support systems in Emerald Shaft Gold Mine. The research provided new insights into the complex geological conditions and variable rock competency of the mine, highlighting the importance of site-specific characterization and tailored support design. The findings of the study and recommendations offered valuable contributions to the existing knowledge on strata control and support systems, providing a framework for improving mine safety and efficiency. Specifically, this research demonstrated the effectiveness of a multi-disciplinary approach in evaluating rock mass quality and designing optimal support systems and highlighted the need for regular monitoring and maintenance to ensure the effectiveness of support measures.Item Open Access Assessing sustainable water, energy and food nexus smart innovations, technologies and practices in Luvuvhu and Nzhelele River catchments areas, Vhembe District Municipality, Limpopo province, South Africa.(2025-09-05) Mphaphuli, Phindulo; Makungo, R.; Madzivhandila, T.; Musetsho, K. D.The water-energy-food (WEF) nexus aids in comprehending the complex and ever-evolving connections between these three essential resources. Climate change and slow economic growth are triggering an increase in pressure on global WEF resources. These present an increase in levels of trade-offs and conflicts among the three resources. The implementation of the WEF nexus can improve resource security and promote sustainable development. However, its widespread adoption has been limited due to the absence of concrete strategies for its practical application. This study assessed the status of WEF nexus smart technologies, innovation and practices in Luvuvhu and Nzhelele River Catchments Areas, Limpopo Province, South Africa. Subsequently, face-to-face surveys were undertaken from 9 July to 30 November 2022 for individual households and focus group discussions (FGD) were conducted within communities under the Luvuvhu River Catchment Areas (Sambandou, Malavuwe and Tshakhuma); and Nzhelele River Catchment Areas (Siloam, Phadzima and Khalavha). A random sampling technique was utilized to select 93 households from a total of 180 targeted households. Key Informant Interviews (KII) were conducted with representatives from the local Department of Water and Sanitation, Eskom, the local Department of Agriculture and Rural Development, as well as local radio stations. During these interviews, data was collected through interview-administered questionnaires. The data obtained from the questionnaires was analyzed using IBM SPSS Statistics version 29, which facilitated the generation of response frequencies. Additionally, the ArcGIS Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW) spatial interpolation method was employed for spatial analysis. The results indicated that the sustainability of the water-energy-food (WEF) nexus depends on the resilience of each resource individually as well as within their respective sectors. The use of water and food smart innovations and practices was found to be slightly higher in the Nzhelele River Catchments Areas than it is in the Luvuvhu River Catchment Areas, with 55.9% (n= 55) and 38.7% (n= 36) of the respondents within the Nzhelele area and 47.3% (n= 44) and 31.2% (n= 29) in the Luvuvhu area using water and food smart innovations and practices, respectively. Moreover, the use of energy innovations and practices was found to be slightly lower in the Nzhelele area s (53.8%; n= 50) than it is in the Luvuvhu areas (59.1%; n= 55). However, most of the respondents in both study areas did not understand how WEF nexus works, whereas some practiced it based on the little knowledge they got from schools, workplaces and the internet. Results from assessing the influence of hydrology on the use of WEF Nexus smart innovations, technologies and practices showed that hydrology is a foundational element in the WEF Nexus as hydrological factors such as water quality, temperature variability and annual rainfall are very crucial in WEF Nexus, influencing the use of smart innovations and practices that could in turn improve the well-being of residents, the productivity of local agricultural and food systems while enhancing the sustainable management of water, energy, and food resources. The study results show that the use of water, energy and food in areas around Luvuvhu River Catchment and Nzhelele River Catchment are significantly impacted by hydrology. It was also noted that a significant percentage (90%) of the respondents reported that they depend on agriculture for survival, which is highly affected by hydrological conditions. Knowledge about the WEF nexus needs to be transferred to people in rural areas through awareness and education. The results of this study can serve as a useful reference for developing regions to improve management of resources, facilitate sustainable development, and fill the existing knowledge gaps towards understanding how promising the WEF nexus innovations and practices are, and how these can be realized at the local community and household levels. Thus, potentially reducing the shortage of WEF resources.Item Embargo Use and management of energy resources from Water, Energy, and Food (WEF) nexus perspective: The case of Vhembe District Municipality (VDM), Limpopo Province(2025-09-05) Mudau, Mulalo; Makungo, R.; Volenzo, T. E.Water, Energy, and Food (WEF) are necessity resources required by human beings for sustenance, social, and economic development. Energy is at the centre of the WEF nexus due to its dual role as a driver of economic activity and the largest contributor to global warming and climate change risks. In response, most countries following the 2015 Paris Agreement on climate action have adopted renewable energy (herein referred to as smart energy practices and innovations) policies to mitigate the adverse impacts of energy on climate change, as well as address health and environmental crises. Such measures and policies are also pursued to enhance energy security and economic prosperity. Though South Africa is one of the countries that has adopted an ambitious renewable energy policy, there is a paucity of information on factors influencing the adoption of renewable based energy resources and potential outcomes at the household level, where most of the envisioned policy objectives are expected to be pursued and realised. The current study was conducted in the Nzhelele and Luvuvhu River catchment areas in the Vhembe District Municipality (VDM) of Limpopo Province. A mixed methods approach was used to gather information on energy access and use at the household level through household questionnaires and triangulated through key informant interviews (KII) and Focus Group Discussions (FGDs). Economic analysis of existing energy practices and innovations was analysed using a Net Present Value (NPV) analysis, and environmental performance assessed through Partial Life Cycle Analysis (LCA). Analysis of data was done in Excel and IBMR SPSSR Statistics version 28 based on weight estimation and multinomial logistic regression approaches. Biomass and mains electricity are the main sources of energy, with energy stacking being a universal strategy observed in majority of households. Renewable energy sources such as solar energy are rarely used at the household level. Approximately 62% of the respondents cited lack of knowledge (inadequate access to information) on the smart energy technologies and their availability as the most significant limiting factor in their adoption. This was followed by poor reliability of smart energy technologies at about 53%, cost saving potential at about 45%, and availability of finance at about 48%. For those in agriculture, market access at about 21% and return on investment at about 19% is an important consideration in the choice of smart energy technologies. Ease of availability and cost of energy type at 35% and 39% respectively were the main factors likely to influence the choice of smart energy innovations. Cost of alternatives at about 13%, load shedding at about 14 %, and socio-economic lockins i.e., culture and past policies at about 12% of the respondents. Employment and to a greater extent, total household income status, emerge as the only factor that significantly (P< 0.005) influences the adoption of smart energy innovations. The use of biomass and LPG are significant predictors of reliability in existing energy innovation. Though renewable energy sources such as solar can reduce environmental footprints, the initial cost and intermittent supply due to weather constrain their adoption. The adverse impact of non-renewable resources such as biomass on health and environment are inherent through higher emission levels. The same applies to coal generated electricity. However, the fact that such sources are cheaper and easily available due to economic lockins also constrains the transition to cleaner energy sources at household level. In conclusion, WEF approach can inform sustainability transition and energy security with economic empowerment and awareness creation, including access to higher education and income earning opportunities being more likely to mediate the transition to smart energy at household level.Item Embargo Spatial variation of historical and future seasonal rainfall trends in the Luvuvhu River Catchment, Limpopo Province, South Africa(2025-09-05) Dzaga, A; Makungo, R.; Nkuna, T. R.This study focused on determining the spatial variation of historic and future seasonal rainfall trends in the Luvuvhu River Catchment. Trend analysis studies hold considerable scientific and practical importance in assessing hydrological hazards and soil erosion monitoring. Rainfall trends are a valuable tool for assessing the impacts of climate change and offering guidance on how to mitigate its negative effects on agriculture. Rainfall in the Luvuvhu River Catchment exhibits significant variability. Alterations in precipitation patterns and trends can lead to an increase in the frequency of extreme events such as drought and floods. Rainfall data was sourced from the Department of Water and Sanitation, South African Weather Services and the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project six. The Innovative Trend Analysis (ITA) and Auto-regressive Moving Average (ARIMA) were used to compute historical and future seasonal rainfall trends for a period of about 135 years from 1950 to 2085. The standard deviation, coefficient of variation, seasonality index and kriging were used to determine spatial variations. The ITA and ARIMA results showed dominantly decreasing trends during summer and all other seasons for both historical and future rainfall data. The results from the ITA method are in agreement with the results of the ARIMA method. The homogeneity test using the Standard Normal Homogeineity Test and the Pettit test was done for the rainfall data. The Standardised Precipitation Index (SPI) was used to check the possible causes of the changes during dry and wet seasons. The historic results of the standard deviation range from 11 in winter to 463 in summer, the coefficient of variation from 0.401 to 1.037 and the seasonality index from 0.02 in winter to 2.358 in summer. The future results indicate that the standard deviation ranges from 2 in winter to 86 in summer, the coefficient of variation from 0.286 to 4.120 and the seasonality index from 0.09 in winter to 3.950 in summer. The kriging results show high variability in the north east side of the catchment where stations such as the Pafuri and Punda Maria are situated for both the historic future seasonal trends . The breaks or changes from the homogeneity tests occurred in the years 1962, 1975, 1979, 1982, 1986, 1987,1996, 2005, 2008 and 2012. The results of the two methods compared fairly well. The SPI results indicated that causes of changes were indicated by breaks periods of flooding and periods of drought on the data that occurred in the years 1975, 2000,1990, 2046, 2036, 2076, 2043 and 2073. Trend analysis and forecasting for the catchment using satellite data is recommended in order to compare the results of the current study and other studies that have been done in the catchment. The results in this study indicate that there is a dominant decreasing trend in the catchment, it is therefore recommended that a plan be developed for efficient and sustainable water use, localized climate adaptation strategies be developed and further research be done expanding on the current study.Item Embargo The assessment of water supply system efficiency and water quality in Standerton, Lekwa Municipality, Mpumalanga, South Africa(2025-09-05) Shikwambana, Pamlah Patience; Makungo, Rachel; Sengani, BenMost municipalities in South Africa face significant challenges in managing their water treatment plants effectively, often due to a lack of technical expertise, insufficient staffing and poor maintenance planning. These result in poor water quality, frequent supply interruptions and failure to comply with regulatory standards. Furthermore, difficulties in retaining skilled personnel and misallocation of resources exacerbate the problem, exposing communities to health risks and unreliable water services that undermine sustainable water supply efforts. This study evaluated the efficiency of the water supply system and assessed water quality at the Standerton Water Treatment Plant (SWTP) in Lekwa Local Municipality, Mpumalanga, South Africa. The assessment focused on operational performance, distribution effectiveness and compliance with national and international water quality standards. Data were collected through field observations, water meter readings and five years of water quality data obtained from the Department of Water and Sanitation (DWS) Mpumalanga from 2016 to 2020. Efficiency analysis involved comparing water quantity against demand, quantifying water losses and assessing distribution reliability. Water quality was evaluated by comparing measured parameters to guidelines set by the World Health Organization (WHO), South African National Standard (SANS-241), and Department of Water Affairs (DWA). Parameters analyzed included microbiological indicators such as Escherichia coli and total coliforms, as well as physicochemical variables like pH, turbidity, free chlorine, electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS), manganese (Mn), and iron (Fe). The results showed that pH, EC, and TDS consistently met the acceptable limits throughout the five-year period, indicating stable performance in these aspects. However, free chlorine, turbidity, manganese and iron persistently exceeded regulatory limits, signaling systemic issues within the treatment process. These ongoing exceedances point to challenges such as inadequate chemical dosing, poor filtration, ineffective disinfection and possible contamination within the distribution network. Of particular concern was the detection of E. coli, suggesting faecal contamination and increased risk of waterborne diseases. The elevated turbidity, Mn and Fe levels also affected water aesthetics, leading to consumer complaints and diminished trust in the municipal water supply. Operational challenges identified include aging infrastructure, poor maintenance practices, inaccuracies in chemical dosing and delayed responses to equipment failures such as malfunctioning pumps and burst pipelines. The plant operates beyond its designed capacity; although licensed for 27 ML/day with a design capacity of 37 ML/day, SWTP treated 43 ML/day while the estimated demand was approximately 45 ML/day. This overcapacity strains the plant, contributing to the suboptimal treatment performance. Additionally, the plant did not comply with regulatory requirements mandating the measurement of critical parameters pH, turbidity and EC at two-hour intervals, due to a lack of necessary analytical equipment. Staffing issues were prevalent, with many process controllers lacking formal training and qualifications necessary for effective plant management. The study also highlighted real-world impacts on local businesses, such as Goldie Chicken, which experiences water outages lasting up to two days per week. These interruptions have resulted in reduced production, workforce retrenchment and the inability to meet market demand. To improve water service delivery, it is imperative for the municipality to invest in upgrading water treatment infrastructure, ensure that plant personnel meet minimum qualification standards and implement continuous training programs to build technical capacity. Strengthening operational management and maintenance practices is essential to achieving regulatory compliance, safeguarding public health and securing a sustainable water supply for the Standerton community.Item Embargo A Comparative Study on the Efficacy of Modified Clay Soil for the Decolouration of Acidic and Basic Textile Dyes: A Case Study(2025-09-05) Chauke, Livingstone; Gumbo, J. R.; Ngulube, T.Dyes play a crucial role in the production of various products, including paper, plastics, and leather. However, their release into the environment leads to pollution and poses health risks to both humans and animals. Therefore, it is essential to treat dye-containing effluents before they are discharged into the environment. This study employed a cost-effective method to remove dyes from wastewater by utilizing natural clay as an adsorbent. The efficacy of Mn²⁺/Al³⁺ oxide-modified Mukondeni black clay soil (smectite) in removing acidic (Methyl Orange, MO) and basic (Crystal Violet, CV) textile dyes was evaluated. A 1:3 modified smectite ratio was identified as the most effective adsorbent. Characterization using X-ray Fluorescence (XRF), Brunauer-Emmet-Teller (BET), X-ray Diffraction (XRD), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS), Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR), and Point of Zero Charge (PZC) revealed that Modified-SMT contained 18.42% Al₂O₃ and 61.08% SiO₂, had a surface area of 35.30 m²/g, and featured functional groups such as C–O, C–O–C, and O–H, with a PZC at pH 4.30. Maximum dye removal efficiencies were recorded at 91.95% for MO after 90 min under the conditions (initial dye concentration = 20 mg/L, temperature = 30 °C, contact time = 90 minutes, shaking speed = 250 rpm, solution volume = 30 mL, and an adsorbent mass = 2 g). For CV, an efficiency of 96.35% was achieved after 30 minutes under conditions (initial dye concentration = 20 mg/L, temperature = 30 °C, contact time = 30 minutes, shaking speed = 250 rpm, solution volume = 30 mL, and an adsorbent mass = 0.1 g). Adsorption isotherm analysis indicated that MO followed a multilayer mechanism on heterogeneous surfaces (Freundlich model), while CV exhibited monolayer adsorption on homogeneous surfaces (Langmuir model). Kinetic studies confirmed pseudo-second-order behaviour. Thermodynamic parameters Δ𝐻 = - 47.72 KJ/mol and Δ𝑆 = -0.17 J/mol/K showed that MO adsorption was non-spontaneous and exothermic (ΔG = 12. 64 KJ/mol for 80 °C), whereas Δ𝐻 = 22.64 KJ/mol and Δ𝑆 = 0.09 J/mol/K for CV adsorption was spontaneous and endothermic (ΔG = -9.55 KJ/mol for 80 °C). The adsorbent retained its efficiency over four regeneration cycles, demonstrating its suitability as a sustainable and effective solution for dye removal in wastewater treatment. It can be concluded that Mn²⁺/Al³⁺ oxide-modified Mukondeni black clay soil (smectite) can remove both MO and CV dye from aqueous solution.Item Embargo Performance assessment of rural water supply system: A case study of Matatani Village, Musina Local Municipality, South Africa(2025-09-05) Tshivhase, Elelwani; Makungo, R.Assessment of the performance of a water supply system is essential to ensure its effectiveness in supplying water to households. The study assessed the performance of rural water supply system using Matatani Village as a case study. Field observations were conducted to identify existing water supply sources. These were mapped in Quantum Geographical Information Systems to determine the spatial distribution of the water sources and their proximity to households. A questionnaire survey was conducted to gather community perceptions of the water supply system. Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 25 was used to analyse questionnaire survey data. Water quality sampling was conducted from December 2023 to May 2024, covering both dry and wet seasons. Sampling locations included Borehole 1 (BH1), Borehole 2 (BH2), River Upstream (RU), River Downstream (RD), the Municipal Tap (MT), and Spring water. Water samples were analysed for physical, chemical, and microbiological parameters. Extech EC500 Pocket Meter and Extech TB400 Turbidity Meter were used to measure physical parameters. Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission Spectroscopy and DR3900 Spectrophotometer were used to analyse metals and non-metals ions, respectively. Metals and non-metals which were analysed include calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), potassium (K), sodium (Na), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), cadmium (Cd), arsenic (As), iron (Fe), lead (Pb), sulphate (SO4), chlorine (Cl), phosphate (PO4) and fluoride (F). Microbiological parameters including Escherichia coliform (E. coli) and total coliform were analysed using membrane filtration method. Groundwater yield and water requirements were estimated for the months of December 2023 to May 2024. These were compared to the estimated water requirements at basic, intermediate and optimal service levels. Key performance indicators on reliability and accessibility were compared to benchmarks to assess the performance status of the water supply system. The socioeconomic profile of Matatani Village is dominated by young population, with 31.4% aged 18–29 years. The high proportion of youth suggests that water demand and usage patterns are influenced by an active population engaged in both domestic and economic activities. Matatani Village faces economic vulnerabilities, with 68.6% of the population relying on grants and a high unemployment rate, with 75.7% of the population unemployed. The high unemployment status indicates significant economic hardship, which can limit the community’s ability to contribute financially to water system maintenance. The findings from field observations and a questionnaire survey indicated that the community relies on diverse sources, including rivers, springs, boreholes, communal taps, rainwater, and municipal water tankers. BH3 and BH4 are non-functional, while BH1 remains operational but is situated far from the households, making access challenging for residents. BH2 was initially designed to support both Mbodi and Matatani residents, but supplying water consistently to Matatani Village has proven challenging. The Mutale River and springs are vulnerable to contamination, while water from municipal taps is infrequently available. The results indicated that only 15.7% of households use 1400 liters per household per week. About 37.1% use between 350–700 liters, 24.3% access 175–350 liters, and 7.1% receive less than 175 liters per week, all of which were below the benchmark of 1500 liters per household per week. The residents of Matatani face challenges in accessing water from their preferred main source. The travelling distances to BH1 varied from 536 m to 1.73 km while the river varied from 3.80 km to 6.56 km to households and were above the benchmark of 100 m. Majority of the respondents (81.4%) experience frequent water supply disruptions indicating poor reliability of the water sources. Groundwater yields varied from 61714.29 to 77142.86 L/d and were adequate to meet the water requirements of 7000, 14000 and 28000 L/d for basic, intermediate and optimal access levels. While most physical water quality parameters complied with water quality guidelines, turbidity for groundwater from BH1 did not meet the compliance standard. Most of the microbial and chemical parameters did not meet the compliance standards for water quality guidelines. Some of the microbial and chemical water quality parameters that exceeded the guidelines include E. coli, total coliform, Al, Zn, Mn, Pb, Cd and Fe in all water sources. Failure to comply with water quality guidelines for chemical and microbial water quality parameters compromised the safety of the water for domestic use. Although half of the population perceive community engagement in water supply management as beneficial, only 1.4% actively participate in paying for these services, which may affect the sustainability of the water supply system. The performance assessment of the Matatani Village water supply system highlighted challenges related to accessibility and reliability, thereby limiting its effectiveness in meeting community needs resulting in poor performance. The study recommends implementation of improved water distribution systems and rehabilitation of BH3, which will increase the water supply and alleviate pressure on other sources. Strengthening community participation through new water management committees and training programs is also recommended for ensuring the long-term sustainability of the system.Item Embargo Time series modelling of groundwater levels in a selected semi-arid catchment within Vhembe District Municipality, South Africa(2025-09-05) Madula, Andy; Makungo, R.This study is aimed at modelling groundwater levels in a semi-arid catchment within Vhembe District Municipality, South Africa. Auto Regressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA) model and Seasonal Auto Regressive Integrated Moving Average with eXogenous variables (SARIMAX) model were used to model the interaction between groundwater levels, temperature, wind speed, evaporation, and rainfall. The unpredictable occurrence of rainfall and other weather conditions in semi-arid and arid regions has caused a restriction in simpler computations of groundwater levels. Historical hydrological data sets of groundwater level were used to model groundwater level and forecast with ARIMA model. Climatic variables like temperature, wind speed, evaporation and precipitation were employed as exogeneous variables of the SARIMAX simulations. The analysis of groundwater levels included the use of Sen’s slope estimator which showed significant fluctuations, with sharp declines, followed by stability and a subsequent increase over time. The ARIMA model’s forecasting of groundwater levels indicated a stable groundwater levels trend post-2016. The training data revealed historical fluctuations, while the test data showed a sharp increase before stabilizing. The SARIMAX model demonstrated a reasonable predictive accuracy for groundwater levels, incorporating significant predictors and seasonal patterns. However, diagnostic tests suggested further model enhancements could improve residual handling. Data stations were selected based on availability of long-term data and considering stations with minimal or no gaps. The data range of the study was 12 years from 2007 to 2018. Both ARIMA and SARIMAX models performed well in predicting groundwater levels. The inclusion of exogenous variables in the SARIMAX model offered a more nuanced understanding of data trends, making it a reliable tool for forecasting. The study findings showed that the groundwater levels in the Luvuvhu River catchment have a stable increase over time and also highlighted the issue of missing data in climatic variables like precipitation which prevented the SARIMAX accuracy in forecasting groundwater levels. This study's insights are valuable for developing effective groundwater management strategies, especially when compared with other studies that highlight the importance of incorporating climate variability into such models for enhanced accuracy. The SARIMAX model's application in predicting groundwater levels is a significant step in environmental modelling, offering insights into subterranean water dynamics crucial for sustainable management.Item Embargo Evaluation of groundwater quality and geographical survey of the boreholes in Ga-Ramaswikana (Simson) Village, Limpopo Province: South Africa(2025-09-05) Sethokga, Sekgopo Paul; Gumbo, J. R.; Durowoju, O. S.; Makungo, R.Geochemical processes and the type of rock in which the aquifer is formed are, in most cases, responsible for natural groundwater deterioration. Therefore, groundwater deterioration is associated with various health risks to persons consuming the water, thus, it would vary from adults to children. Ga-Ramaswikana and surrounding communities depend on groundwater for household uses due to the lack of municipal water supply systems. This study focused on investigating the groundwater quality, geological formation, and geo-profile of boreholes in Ga-Ramaswikana village. The water samples and geophysical survey data were collected four times, once a season (autumn, winter, spring, and summer). The methods of water quality analysis and borehole profiling using PQWTS500 groundwater detector were adopted. The following water quality parameters were evaluated, physicochemical parameters such as Total Dissolve Solid (TDS), Turbidity, Salinity, Temperature, pH, and Electrical Conductivity (EC); The major anions and cations (HCO3- , SO42- , NO3- , Cl- , F- , K+ , Mg2+, Ca2+, Na+ ), and Trace metals such as (Aluminium (Al), Arsenic (As), Chromium (Cr), Copper (Cu), Iron (Fe), and Silicon (Si)). Fluoride concentrations were above the SANS limit (1.5) during the three seasons and is likely responsible for teeth discoloration. This makes the water unsuitable for drinking use. The average fluoride (F-) levels for all weather seasons were 1.73, 2.1, 2.6, 2.9, and 1.9 mg/l for the following boreholes respectively, Sepaela, Mashabela, Public borehole, Mahladisa, and Rampa. The public and Rampa boreholes had the highest turbidity which exceeded the limit of 5 NTU for World Health Organisation, and South African National Standards. The community borehole had turbidity of 101.6, and 32.4 NTU in spring and summer respectively. For Rampa household, the water had a turbidity of 22 NTU and 9.7 NTU in winter and summer respectively. For trace metals, higher concentrations of aluminium were recorded in the following boreholes (P2, P4, P8, P12, P14, P15, P16, P18). 100 % of water samples in the study were prone to Silicon which affected the taste of water. Arsenic was present in high concentration in the following boreholes P12, P13, P14, P15, and P18 of different seasons. The P12 to P18 boreholes had arsenic concentrations of 1.69, 4.48, 3.01, 4.5, and 6.17 mg/l, except for P16 which was for Mogalakwena river water sample. The major cations (Ca2+, Na+, Mg2+, and K+) were plotted against major anions (HCO3- , SO42-, and Cl-) on a piper diagram to understand the water type dominant in the groundwater of Ga-Ramaswikana Village. The geochemistry of groundwater in Ga-Ramaswikana Village is dominated by calcium chloride (CaCl2) water type in most boreholes. CaCl2 is a type of hard water that gives a salty water taste of groundwater within Ramaswikana Village. The groundwater chemistry of a public borehole is CaCl2 throughout all seasons. This tells that the public borehole is drilled on a calcium chloride rock formation. The decrease in annual rainfall trend has impacted the seasonal groundwater recharge. Geophysical surveys were conducted to investigate the subsurface profile of boreholes and geological formations in Ramaswikana village. Therefore, the PQWTS500 groundwater detector machine revealed that some boreholes in the study were wrongly sited. This area is associated with the Gneiss formation and the groundwater in this area is salty. This may be due to geochemical processes such as weathering, rock-water interaction, dissolution of minerals, and ion exchange, which alter the water quality in the ground. An integrated approach involving the geophysical survey and groundwater quality has been studied. Therefore, it has contributed to a better understanding of groundwater, geologic formation, its quality, and health risks of groundwater within Ga-Ramaswikana. The findings will be shared with relevant stakeholders in the water sector and community leaders for sustainable mitigation strategies and development.Item Embargo Hydrogeochemical evaluation and groundwater quality assessment for drinking and irrigation purposes in Bushbuckridge, South Africa.(2025-05-16) Singo, Thivhilaheli; Makia, Diko L.This study was conducted in Bushbuckridge, situated within the Sand River Catchment (SRC), Mpumalanga Province, South Africa, with the aim of evaluating the hydrochemistry and assessing the quality of groundwater for drinking and irrigation purposes. Groundwater samples (n= 40) were collected from different boreholes in different locations around the study area. Groundwater hydrochemical parameters including pH, total dissolved solids (TDS), electrical conductivity (EC), total hardness, major cations (Ca2+, Na+, K+ and Mg2+) and major anions (F-, Cl-, NO3- HCO3-and SO42) concentrations were assessed for the study area. Suitability for drinking was assessed based on comparison with selected standards and guidelines, such as the South African National Standard (SANS), Department of Water and Sanitation (DWS), World Health Organization (WHO) and by computation of Water Quality Index (WQI). Groundwater suitability for irrigation was assessed using eight irrigation indices: TDS, EC, Sodium Adsorption Rate (SAR), Sodium Percent (%Na), Kelly's Index (KI), Residual Sodium Carbonate (RSC), Permeability Index (PI) and Magnesium Hazard (MH). Groundwater type and facies characteristics was determined with the Piper diagram while geochemical controls were ascertained using Gibbs diagram. The results indicate cation and anion concentrations in the order; Na+ > Ca2+> Mg2+ > K+, and HCO3- > Cl- > SO42- > F- > NO3- respectively, while EC (14 – 551mS/m), TDS (99 – 4411 mg/l), Cl (1.1 – 1290.6 mg/l), Na (16 – 758 mg/l), Mg (0.54 – 181 mg/l) and TH (15 – 1085) were variables with upper ranges significantly above SANS and WHO guidelines. According to the DWS guidelines the suitability of groundwater for drinking was classified as class – 0 (ideal; 10%), class – 1 (good; 24%), class – 2 (marginal; 40%), class – 3 (poor; 20%) and class – 4 (unsuitable; slightly over 7%). The WQI indicated that 40% of the analysed groundwater samples were of excellent quality, 56% good and 4% were found to be poor to unsuitable for drinking. Results for groundwater irrigation suitability potential for the analysed samples (n=40) revealed four clusters; (a) most or all the samples are suitable based on TDS (65%), EC (75%) and SAR (100%), (b) just over half are suitable based on PI (59%) and %Na (55% permissible), (c) most of the samples are unsuitable based on RSC (77%), and (d) equal distribution between suitable and unsuitable based on MH and KI (50%). According to the dominant cations and anions, the main water types were Na-HCO3, Ca-HCO3 and Mg-Ca-HCO3 mixed type. Rock weathering was the dominant geochemical process, associated with evaporation. Water-rock interactions through silicate weathering and ion exchange reactions between Ca2+, Mg2+ and Na+ were determining factors influencing the hydrochemical evolution of groundwater in the study area. The findings of the study suggest that the groundwater quality in the Bushbuckridge area is under threat. There is need for prompt mitigation actions that seek to intensify water quality monitoring, more in-depth studies to characterize the source and fate of potential pollutants in the area.Item Embargo Investigating the effects of aridity and its impacts on water resources availability in the Luvuvhu River Catchment(2025-06-16) Nkuna, Tinyiko Rivers; Makungo, R.The study investigated aridity and its impacts on water resource availability in the Luvuvhu River Catchment (LRC). Hydrological information indicates gradual changes towards more arid conditions in the LRC. The shift towards aridity has impacted negatively on water resources availability. Aridity indices for the LRC were determined using both meteorological and hydrological data. The 5-year or 10-year rainfall or streamflow averages were used to detect drought thresholds, except during flood events. A significant study was done on drought conditions using Standardised Precipitation Index (SPI), Standardised Precipitation-Evapotranspiration (SPEI) and Standardised Streamflow Index (SDI). The study hypothesised increased inter-station variations (spatial and temporal) observable from 5-year or 10-year rainfall or streamflow averages over a historical hydrological period. The study used rainfall and temperature data from the Agricultural Research Council (ARC) and South African Weather Service (SAWS) spanning 58 years (1961 - 2018). National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) data with a resolution of 10 km was used to determine historical and future aridity in the LRC. The spatiotemporal variations and trends of aridity are reflected in the availability and distribution of water resources. The study developed the aridity indices using United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Aridity Index (AI) to determine the spatiotemporal variability of water resources in the LRC. The variations and trends of aridity indices were determined using the coefficient of variation and Mann Kendall test, respectively. Due to a limited number of weather stations in the study area, the Kriging method was used to interpolate aridity indices for areas with no stations. The temporal changes of the 5-year or 10-year cycles of hydrological data analyses show progressive, gradual increases linked to global environmental changes such as global warming. The Hierarchical clustering (HC) analysis revealed the presence of two factors that account for 59.7% and 39.3% of the variability in rainfall within the LRC. The results show that upstream of the catchment experiences more rainfall and lower temperatures than downstream. The increase in temperature and decrease in rainfall might negatively impact the availability of water resources for downstream users. Thus, more arid conditions are experienced downstream of the catchment than upstream. Flood events have become rare and more intense, a characteristic associated with areas prone to droughts. The results of the study reveal significant year-to-year variability in floods and drought events. The increase in aridity should be considered when allocating water resources and implementing sustainable water resources management in the LRC. Thus, the study provides a baseline for monitoring and modelling hydrological processes in arid environments.Item Open Access Economic optimization of assurance in stochastic yield analysis of water resource systems(2024-09-06) Nyadawa, Chris Nduba; Makungo, R.; Mwaka, B.; Ndiritu, J.Allocation of water from South Africa’s already straining water resources systems is a complex task given the ever-increasing water demand. The situation is made worse because of diminishing suitable sites for water resources infrastructure development, limited financial resources, and effects of climate change. To mitigate failure of water supply and ensure progressive water allocation, South Africa adopted a risk-based water allocation system in which it allocates water at different assurances of supply. Since assurance of supply is inversely proportional to yield, some water authorities tend to allocate water at relatively excessive high assurances of supply to mitigate total failure of water resources. This practice of allocating water at excessively high assurances of supply in turn reduces the amount of allocable water from the water resource. Consequently, the practice in turn results in either emerging users being denied access to water and/or lowly prioritised users being curtailed more early/frequently to satisfy the highly prioritised users. This study, therefore, examined prospects of optimizing existing water resources by specifically investigating the prospects of increasing the economic benefits from a water resource through reduction of its assurance of supply. The study therefore conducted a comparative analysis on the Western Cape Water Supply System (WCWSS) to assess if the yield of the system could be increased for more economic benefits by either reducing the assurance of supply only or by adopting an infrastructural development. To achieve this objective, the study compared the net benefits derived from the Berg River Voelvlei Augmentation Scheme (BRVAS) infrastructural development project that would increase the yield of the WCWSS by 23 x106 m3/a, and the net benefits that could be derived from an increase in yield due to reduction of assurance of supply by a margin that would result in a yield similar to that of the intended BRVAS infrastructural project. The second section determined incremental yields from Tzaneen Dam and their corresponding net economic benefits due to reduction of assurance of supply. The third section tested if the optimum assurance of supply of Tzaneen Dam was sensitive to other water resources systems characterized by different hydrological regimes. To conduct this sensitivity analysis, incremental yields and corresponding net benefits due reduction of assurance of supply from, Midmar, Goedertrouw, Mokolo and Boegeberg dams were determined. The comparative analysis demonstrated that the yield of the WCWSS could also be increased by reducing the assurance of supply from the existing 1 in 50 years (1:50) to 1 in 30 years (1:30). It also demonstrated that adoption of reduction of assurance of supply as a method of increasing assurance of supply more economic benefits when compared to yield augmentation through infrastructural interventions as reduction of assurance of supply had a net benefit of R 96.2 x106 while the BRVAS infrastructural intervention had a net benefit of R 15.5 x106. Results established that Tzaneen Dam could be optimised at 1:18 assurance of supply. It was therefore concluded that not all reductions of the assurance of supply result in an incremental increase of the net benefits. Results from the sensitivity analysis revealed that each water resources system is unique as different water resources used in the sensitivity analysis, Midmar, Goedertrouw, Mokolo and Boegeberg Dams had their optimum assurances of supply at 1:12, 1:12, 1:8 and 1:10 levels, respectively. Both the comparative analysis and the sensitivity analyses acknowledge the role played by water availability in socio-economic development, however, for ease of analysis due to challenges of quantifying contribution due to sufficient or insufficient water, the socio-economic aspect was not included in the analysis. Overall, the study highlighted that the economic benefits of a water resource may be optimized by reducing the assurance of supply up to a certain level. The study therefore recommended that this practice should also be considered as an alternative method of increasing water availability from a system.Item Open Access Influence of firing temperature on ceramic properties of kaolinitic clays from Duthuni, Limpopo Province (South Africa)(2024-09-06) Miyambu, Mihleketo Oscar; Diko-Makia, L.; Ekosse, G. E.This study investigated the ceramic suitability of two representative kaolin samples from Duthuni area, subjected to four firing temperatures (800 oC, 900 oC, 1000 oC and 1100 oC).The objectives were to ascertain the effects of the raw clay physical, mineralogical, chemical characteristics on its ceramic potential, elucidate on the thermal evolution and associated mineral phase transformations, and to technologically characterize the raw clays. Physical properties were identified by particle size distribution, consistency limits and clay activity. Mineralogical and chemical properties were investigated by XRD, FTIR and XRF. Firing characteristics were measured by weight loss (WL), bulk density (BD), linear shrinkage (LS), water absorption (WA) and flexural strength (FS). The characteristic mineral assemblage comprised; quartz + kaolinite ± mica + microcline + goethite + hematite + anatase + ilmenite. Quartz occurred as major constituent in both samples, while kaolinite, Goethite and Anatase are present as minor constituents. Visual appraisal of the clay workability chart indicated that D1 and D2 plot within the high shrinkage field, with D1 displaying comparatively higher potential for shrinkage than D2. The potential for high shrinkage suggests possible detrimental effects during clay body formulation (extrusion and molding) as well as firing phases of the ceramic manufacturing process. Interpretations drawn from the Holtz and Kovacs diagram are consistent with the mineral phases identified by XRD. Kaolinite was the main clay mineral in both samples, occurring as minor constituent. The loam to silty texture of D2 and and D1 respectively are consistent with the predominance of quart phases revealed by the XRD and Si – O functional groups observed in the IR. The studied materials are siliceous (SiO2: 38.5–45.5 wt%), aluminous (Al2O3: 23.9–16.7 wt%) and ferruginous (Fe2O3: 23.5–21.3 wt%), with the SiO2/A Al2O3 ratios ranging from 1.61 to 2.71. The geochemistry of the clay samples also shows relatively high amounts of TiO2 (2.91 – 2.71 wt% respectively for D1 and D2). Low kaolinite content and high iron oxide contents equally suggests kaolin impurity and colouring effect on the fired clays. Furthermore, appraisal of the ceramic suitability of D1 and D2 based on their geochemistry indicates suitability for red bodies (D2) and a close outlier for red bodies and porous tiles The DSC curve portrayed three endothermic peaks; 85 oC to 90 oC, 295 oC to 300 oC and 530 oC to 535 oC corresponding to elimination of adsorbed water, goethite dehyroxylation and formation of metakaolinite respectively. A weak exothermic was observed at 945 oC and 955 oC suggesting recrystallization of metakaolinite to spinel or mullite. Small mass loses where observed between 20 oC to 120 oC (2% - 7.2%), 250 oC to 320 oC (1.3% - 3.8%) and 400 oC to 600 oC (5.2% - 6.2%). The relatively low kaolinite dehydroxylation temperature (535 oC) coupled with the generally asymmetric shape of the endothermic peaks suggests a poorly ordered and crystalline structure. The highest percentage of weight loss (WL) was recorded at 1100 oC in D1(12.41%) and at 900 oC in D2 (16.96%). The bulk density (Bd) increased with firing temperature in both samples. The LS in D1 ranged from 10.2 % to 18.59% from 800 oC to 1100 oC. A corresponding increase in LS was also observed in D2 (8.06 % to 11.8%).The FS of D1 increased steadily up to 1000 oC and then experienced a slight decline at 1100 oC. The FS values for D1 ranged from 0.86 to 1.25 MPa, with acceptable strength attained at 1000 oC and 1100 oC. The FS of D2 showed a similar increasing trend and slight decline at 1100 oC. The WA for D1 showed a decrease with firing temperature, ranging from 24.48 % at 800 oC to 9.01% at 1100 oC. A similar trend was observed for D2 (19.39 % to 10.88 %) from 800 oC to 1100 oC respectively. D2 satisfies the conditions for massive bricks, ceramic blocks and roof tiles. The studied clays show moderate potentials for exploitation based on their inherent characteristics (without modification). This, however, limits the exploitation to predominantly face bricks. Beneficiation is thus recommended to increase value and range of structural ceramic applications.Item Open Access Development of mineral beneficiation and value addition framework for sustainable socio-economic development of Zimbabwe(2024-09-06) Laisani, John; Amponsah - Dacosta, F.; Mulaba, A. F.Less than a decade is remaining for African Vision 2030 which began in 2009 to lapse, yet some of its targeted developmental milestones such as mineral beneficiation and value addition are yet to be achieved. Most of the African countries richly endowed with mineral resources that are committed to incorporating beneficiation and value addition in various value chains are still lagging significantly. Zimbabwe is one country through its Zimbabwe Accelerated Sustainable Socio-Economic Transformation (ZIMASSET) economic blueprint which elaborated the multiple benefits of the beneficiation strategy to unlock value from its vast mineral resources but never developed a framework for its implementation. This study aimed to fill that gap by developing a mineral beneficiation and value-addition framework to achieve sustainable socio-economic development in Zimbabwe. The objectives of this study were to examine the existing policies on mineral beneficiation and their effects on sustainable socio-economic development; evaluate the cross-cutting constraints and associated interventions to encourage mineral beneficiation in Zimbabwe; examine the perceptions of stakeholders regarding the need for mineral beneficiation and value addition in Zimbabwe and ultimately developing a framework for mineral beneficiation and value addition for the sustainable socio-economic development of Zimbabwe. A mixed methods approach was used to achieve the objectives and the study design was convergent parallel design. A stratified random sampling technique was used to select 291 participants for the quantitative survey. Data was collected using a survey questionnaire and descriptive statistics were computed using SPSS version 25. An unstructured interview guide was used to collect qualitative data and themes were used to analyse the data through thematic approach. Results of the study indicate that the existing policies on beneficiation are hindering the realisation of the beneficiation and value addition of minerals. Zimbabwe’s policy volatility, policy inconsistency, bureaucracy, and corruption heavily affected the implementation of the beneficiation policy. The cross-cutting constraints include energy constraints, lack of skills, lack of institutional capacity, lack of coordination, monitoring, and evaluation of policies, lack of appropriate legislative instruments, and the neglect of the socio-economic aspect of beneficiation. Stakeholders indicated a strong affiliation to the beneficiation strategy but there is scepticism around the current economic and political situation which is blurring the realisation of this policy. Using the above results, the framework for mineral beneficiation and value addition was developed. This framework is a critical pillar for enhancing economic value chains through beneficiation and value addition because it outlines important aspects, role players and the resulting benefits for achieving sustainable socio-economic development in Zimbabwe. The development of the framework for mineral beneficiation and value addition in Zimbabwe implies a strategic roadmap that can guide policymakers, promote collaboration, address challenges, and pave the way for sustainable socioeconomic development through the efficient utilization of the country's mineral resources.Item Open Access Impacts of climate change on water resources availability for agriculture in Nzhelele Area, Limpopo Province(2024-09-06) Ndou, Naledzani; Makungo, R.; Nkuna, T. R.Many countries worldwide are experiencing climate change associated impacts on their most valuable sectors such as water resources and agriculture, and South Africa is no exception. The impacts of climate change on water resources availability are projected to increase in almost all regions. This will have a devastating impact on agriculture, especially in a semi-arid and water scarce area of South Africa. This study investigated the impacts if climate change on the availability of water resources for agriculture in Nzhelele area, Limpopo Province. The Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) was used to evaluate the impacts of climate change on future water resources availability. The SWAT model was calibrated and validated using data for the periods 1991-2000 and 2001-2009 using the SWATCUP-SUFI-2 technique. SWAT model was then fed with projected rainfall and temperature data from Conformal Cubic Atmospheric model (CCAM) for the periods 2023-2053 (near future) and 2053–2082 (far future) to simulate future inflows. Crop water requirements (CWR) for selected crops (maize, tomato, groundnuts, and sweet potato) were estimated using the crop coefficient approach for wet season (summer) and dry season (winter) in near future and far future. The CWRs were compared with inflows to evaluate the availability of water to meet future CWRs. The SWAT model performance was evaluated based on evaluation criteria Coefficient of determination (R2), Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency (NSE), percent bias (PBIAS) and ratio of the root mean square error to the standard deviation of measured data (RSR). The model showed good performance statistics of R2 of 0.71, NSE of 0.56, PBIAS of +0.6% and RSR of 0.66. The study findings revealed that simulated inflows will decrease by 28.67% and 48.22% in the near future and far future, respectively, relative to the baseline period 1987-2009. A comparison of inflows and CWR showed that in near future, water requirements for maize, tomato, groundnuts, and sweet potato in wet season will exceeds inflows by 49.54, 10.05, 9.43, and 9.14%, respectively. In the dry season, water requirements for tomato and sweet potato will be higher than inflows by 29.87 and 71.12%, respectively. However, estimated water requirements for maize were 62% lower than inflows in dry season. In far future, water requirements for maize, tomato, groundnuts, and sweet potato in wet season will be higher than inflows by 66.08, 26.9, 27.15, and 37.22%, respectively, and in dry season water requirements for tomato and sweet potato and maize will be higher than inflows by 62.30, 89.42 and 25.87%, respectively. The study concluded that projected inflows will not be able to meet the simulated future crop water requirements in Raliphaswa irrigation scheme under changing climatic conditions.Item Open Access Optimisation of Operating Conditions and Field Assessment of Copper Nitrate Impregnated Ceramic Water Filters as Point-Of-Use Water Treatment Device(2024-09-06) Tshidumo, Milliscent Nduvho; Edokpayi, J. N.Consumption of contaminated water is increasingly becoming a leading problem in developing nations and posing greater threat to human health. Consequently, treating water at the household level is highly recommended for the protection of public health. This research investigates microbial water quality challenges in Tswinga village, focusing on the impact on residents' health, daily life, and socio-economic activities. The primary research question explores the effectiveness of ceramic water filters, particularly those impregnated with copper nitrate, in mitigating waterborne diseases and improving water quality in the region. The study employs a mixed-method approach, combining fieldwork, photovoice methodology, socio-demographic surveys, and laboratory analyses. Fieldwork involves participant interviews, digital photography, and thematic analysis to understand the community's water-related challenges. Socio-demographic surveys gather information on household characteristics, water sources, and daily experiences. Water samples from various sources, in the field, undergo physicochemical and microbial analyses. Ceramic water filters with varying concentrations of copper nitrate were optimised in the laboratory to assess their efficacy in reducing Escherichia coli (E. coli) and total coliform. The results from the field and laboratory were compared to evaluate the filters' real-world performance. Key findings revealed significant water quality challenges, such as safety concerns, sanitation issues, and diseases attributable to contaminated water. Photovoice methodology highlighted the community's priorities, emphasising the need for sustainable access to clean water. Physicochemical analysis demonstrated that raw water from Tswinga falls within acceptable standards, but microbial analysis revealed the presence of E. coli and total coliform. After optimisation, ceramic filters impregnated with 1 g concentration of ionic copper demonstrated promise in reducing E. coli and total coliform bacteria. The weekly results indicated an average reduction of 0.64 log for E. coli and 0.16 log for total coliform, showcasing the effectiveness of the filters, attributed to the antibacterial properties of ionic copper. However, challenges arise in translating laboratory success to real-world usage, raising questions about user compliance and proper maintenance. The study sheds light on the complex water quality challenges faced by Tswinga village. While the physicochemical parameters meet standards, microbial contamination poses a severe health risk. Ceramic water filters, particularly those with 1 g of copper nitrate, showed potential in laboratory studies, but their effectiveness in real-world situations depends on addressing user behaviour and maintenance issues.Item Open Access Environmental Impacts of Tin Mine Waste: A Case Study of the Zaaiplaats Tin Mine, Limpopo Province, South Africa(2024-09-06) Nemadodzi, Matodzi Bridget; Mundalamo, H. R.; Ogola, J. S.This research focused on the potential impacts of the Zaaiplaats tin mine waste on the environment and on human health. It investigated the heavy metals and their distribution pattern at the Zaaiplaats tin mine. Heavy metals were investigated in the tailings, water and plants found at the mine. A radiation survey was also conducted to check for the possibility of potential radionuclides induced by the mine. Fieldwork involved collection of tailings within the old river channel, Heap A, B and C. A total of 65 samples were collected, 15 of them, across the river profile, while 6, 24 and 20 were collected from Heap A, B and C respectively. Samples were prepared and analysed at the Mining and Environmental Geology laboratory at the University of Venda using X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometry. The maximum values were 2842.4 ppm, 885.1 ppm, and 740.7 ppm for lead from Heap B followed by copper, and zinc from the river channel respectively. The distribution pattern of some metals like lead, zinc and copper were increasing with depth. The highest Pi (Environmental quality index of the pollutant) was registered by Pb followed by Cu and As and the values are 47.11, 29.95 and 26.89 respectively. Cu, Zn, As, Pb, Th and U had shown a higher degree of pollution which is presented by Pi values of 3 and above in all the different sampling locations of the tailings. The total water samples collected were depending on the availability. Therefore, only 3 water samples were obtained by use of 250 ml bottles. Water samples were prepared and analysed using Atomic Absorption Spectrometry. There are no values for metals such as Cr, Ni and Co in water samples collected at Zaaiplaats tin mine. However, the maximum values of Pb and Cu metals were 0.67 ppm and 0.59 ppm respectively which is higher as compared to the South African water quality guidelines and it is thus polluted. A plant commonly known as horsetail (Equisetum ramosissimum) was collected during dry and wet season for comparison purposes. A total of 9 plant samples were collected, prepared and analysed using Atomic Absorption Spectrometry. Bioaccumulation factor of these plant samples were higher during the dry season and lower during the wet season. The trend in the BAF for heavy metals during dry season are in the ranking order of Cr > Cu > Pb > Co. The trend in the BAF for heavy metals during wet season are in the ranking order of Co > Cu > Pb > Cr. Cr was transferred effectively in dry season while cobalt was transferred effectively in wet season. Cr and Cu metals were absorbed and accumulated during dry season as opposed to wet season wherein Co was absorbed and accumulated in wet season than in dry season. BAF and TF values were lower in both dry and wet season. The horsetail plant is a hyper-accumulator of these metals and can be used for their clean up as a remediation strategy paired with other remediation measures. Radiation dose rate and dose surveying was also conducted by means of a portable radiation survey meter DP802i-RAYTECH Radiation Detector. Radiation dose is increasing from a higher elevation which is the first surveying point along the river channel to low elevation. Radiation dose rate is inconsistent and does not have a general trend. The radiation dose rate mean, minimum, maximum values in microsievent per year (mSv/y) were 4.03 mSv/y, 0.96 mSv/y, and 11.65 mSv/y respectively. The maximum value of radiation dose rate was slightly higher compared to UNSCEAR background radiation of 2.4 mSv/y to 10 mSv/y. However, Zaaiplaats tin mine tailings are of no immediate concern since there are some areas that have had a radiation dose rate of 10 times higher than that of UNSCEAR and no deleterious health effects were associated with this elevated radiation exposure.