Bioaccumulation and the human health risk of p,p'-DDT, p,p'-DDD, p,p'-DDE in freshwater fish species from the north-eastern Limpopo River valley, Vhembe District, Limpopo Province, South Africa

Abstract

Dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane (DDT) has been used globally as an agricultural pesticide since the early 1940s, and both the United States and Canada banned its use in 1972. DDT is still used in the malaria-endemic region of South Africa for vector control through indoor residual spraying (IRS). Studies have reported a link between DDT exposure and prostate cancer risk and/or aggressive disease presentation in Italy, Canada, and the United States. Epidemiological analysis of men with prostate cancer (PCa) in South Africa showed an increased PCa risk in Vhavenda people, the predominant population of Vhembe. The Vhembe District municipality falls in the malaria-endemic region, where DDT is used for vector control. The region of interest is fed by three major tributaries of the Limpopo River, which provide communities with agriculture, washing/bathing and portable water as well food (fish). Therefore, environmental levels of p,p-DDT, p,p-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane (DDD) and p,p- dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE) were measured before and after of the 2022 malaria high-transmission period (HTP), through sampling fish, from the Mutale and Mutshindudi rivers, and Thathe Vondo Dam. Fishes were bought from fishermen at the Thathe Vondo Dam and along the Mutale and Mutshindudi rivers. The fish's edible part (muscle), one piece raw and one piece cooked was tested for DDTs. Fish from the Mutshundudi River had higher DDT residuals than all other sites before the IRS. None of the DDTs were present after the yearly IRS. Daily exposure of DDTs for consumers was estimated by comparing estimated daily intake (EDI) with different criteria. The results revealed that the EDIs in our study were all lower than those criteria. Target hazard quotient (THQ) and risk ratio (R) were used to evaluate non-carcinogenic (toxic) and carcinogenic risks. There was no carcinogenic or toxic risk for humans consuming fish from the Mutale and Mutshindudi rivers and Thathe Vondo Dam. This indicates that DDT, DDD, and DDE in fish are not affecting the PCa burden in the Vhavenda men living in remote communities.