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Item Embargo Effect of location and drying methods on nutrient composition, apparent digestibility, growth performance and carcass characteristics of South African Mutton Merino Lambs fed different levels of dried marula fruit peels(2024-09-06) Murovhi, Ronewa; Murovhi, R.; Mikasi, M. S.The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of location and drying methods on nutrient composition of dried marula fruit peels and apparent digestibility, and growth performance as well as carcass characteristics of South African mutton merino lambs fed different levels of dried marula fruit peels. Marula (Sclerocarya birrea) is a medium sized tree belonging to the Brachystegia genus. Several experiments were conducted to evaluate the chemical composition of dried marula fruit peels where the DM, OM, CP, CF, ADF, NDF, and GE were determined. All the data in this experiment were subjected to analysis of variance for a 2x2 factorial in a completely randomised design using a GLM procedure of Minitab 19(Minitab, 2019). Tukey’s studentised multiple range test determined statistically significant differences among the means. The dry matter of fresh marula fruit peels has shown a significant difference (P<0.01). The dry matter of fresh marula fruit peels from Tzaneen using freeze and oven-drying methods was higher than those from Phalaborwa. The dry matter, crude protein, ash, ether extract, acid detergent lignin, and gross energy contents of dried marula fruit peels for both locations and drying methods were not significantly different (P>0.05). The crude fibre, Acid detergent fibre, and nitrogen detergent fibre results for both location and drying methods were significantly different (P<0.01). The crude fibre and nitrogen detergent fibre from Tzaneen were found to be higher than those from Phalaborwa when a freeze-drying method was used. However, when using an oven-drying method, the crude fiber, nitrogen detergent fiber, and acid detergent lignin contents were higher in Phalaborwa. Apparent digestibility of DM, CP, and OM of the diet was determined in a completely randomised design and the means were compared using a Tuckey method at a 95% confidence level. The experiment was conducted in the last ten days of growth trial. A total of 9 male South African mutton merino sheep of approximately 35kg of weight were used in this experiment. The results revealed that the inclusion levels of dried marula fruit peels in the animal diet did not affect (P>0.05) the CP intake. However, a significant difference (P<0.01) was observed in the OM intake by the lambs. The inclusion levels of dried marula fruit peels in the diet did not affect (P>0.05) the faecal excretion of nutrients by lambs. A non-significance difference (P>0.05) was observed in the digestibility of nutrients. The determination of growth performance and carcass characteristics of the lambs fed different levels of dried marula fruit peels was conducted, where the ADFI, ADG, FCR and hot carcass weight, cold carcass weight, dressing percentage were measured respectively. A completely randomised design was used in this experiment with seven animals per treatment. Before the trial, the lambs were vaccinated against brucellosis, pulpy kidney and treated for internal parasites. The inclusion levels of dried marula fruit peels had no significant impact (P>0.05) on the growth performance and carcass characteristics. This research has revealed that dried marula fruit peels can be used as a potential energy source for lambs without negatively affecting the growth and carcass characteristics of lambs at up to 10% inclusion level.Item Embargo Effects of dietary prickly pear (opuntia ficus indica l.) seed cake meal inclusion in a maize-cowpea diet on ROSS 308 broiler performance and carcass characteristics(2023-10-05) Netili, Thuso; Fushai, F.; Netshipale, A. J.; Katla, E.The aim of the study was to investigate the effects of graded inclusion of prickly pear oil seed cake (PPSC) in sprouted cowpea-maize diets for broilers. Diluent (0%PPSC) sprouted cowpea-maize grower and finisher diets, and the respective (10% and 12.5% crude fibre on DM basis) iso-nutrient, PPSC “’summit” grower and finisher diets were formulated and blended to constitute the test diets. Blended grower test diets contained calculated 0, 2.5, 5, 7.5, 8.75 and 10% PPSC, respectively denoted G0, G1, G2, G3, G4, and G5. Blended finisher test diets contained calculated 0, 3.1255, 6.25, 9.375, 10.9375%, 12.5% PPSC, respectively denoted F0, F1, F2, F3, F4, F5. Dietary nutrient profiles were benchmarked to respective commercial grower and finisher maize-soybean positive control (PC) diets. The trial used 504 Ross 308 broiler chicks reared in an open, deep litter house partitioned into 1.5 m long x 1.4 m wide steel framed, mesh wire pens, each holding 18 birds. Chicks fed on the same commercial starter (days 1-24) diet, after which they were assigned to grower (days 25-35), followed by finisher (days 36-42) experimental diets for a completely randomised experiment replicated four times. Birds had free access to feed and water. Feed intake (FI), live weight gain (LWG), and the feed conversion ratio (FCR) were evaluated, along with slaughter weight, carcass characteristics, visceral organ weights, and meat quality. Quadratic regression analysis revealed significant effects of dietary PPSC levels on grower phase intake (P = 0.044) and cumulative grower-finisher live weight gain (P = 0.04). During the grower phase, feed intake increased (P < 0.05) with PPSC inclusion until it matched the control diet at PPSC dietary level G3 and above (P > 0.05). The optimum dietary inclusion of PPSC for feed intake during the grower phase was estimated to be 1.74%. For the finisher phase, broilers on the F0-F2 PPSC inclusion levels had lower final (42-day) live weights compared to the control (P < 0.05). Live weight at and above F3 PPSC dietary inclusion was intermediate, similar to both the lower level PPSC dietary inclusion and the control (P > 0.05). A quadratic estimate of 4.58% dietary optimum PPSC inclusion was predicted for the cumulative live weight gain. Dressed carcass weight increased (P < 0.05) with dietary PPSC inclusion at and above the G3-F3 PPSC feeding regime, matching the control diet (P > 0.05). A quadratic estimate of 3.01% dietary optimum PPSC inclusion was predicted for carcass weight. The dressing percentage increased (P < 0.05) with dietary PPSC inclusion above the G2-F2 PPSC feeding regime, matching the control diet (P > 0.05). A quadratic estimate of 7.58% dietary optimum PPSC inclusion was predicted for dressing percentage. Broilers on the G5-F5 feeding regime had higher (P < 0.05) abdominal fat compared to those on no or lower PPSC feeding regimes, while broilers on the G4-F4 feeding regime had intermediate abdominal fat (P < 0.05). A quadratic estimate of 4.73% dietary optimum PPSC inclusion was predicted for abdominal fat. Quadratic regression analysis also showed significant effects of PPSC levels on scaled gizzard weight (P = 0.007). The optimal dietary inclusion of PPSC for scaled gizzard weight was estimated to be 4.39%. In conclusion, within the limitations of the recommended dietary fibre content, grower-finisher dietary PPSC inclusion upgraded the sprouted cowpea diets to match the standard diet in terms of grower phase feed intake, finisher phase live weight gain, slaughter weight, abdominal fat, and the dressing percentage, with the predicted optimum dietary inclusion level dependent on the broiler response variable. Based on the carcass yield, approximately 3 % was considered optimum dietary PPSC inclusion in sprouted-cowpea based broiler diets.Item Embargo Performance of ROSS 308 broilers on maize-sprouted cowpeas grower-finisher diets fortified with black soldier fly (hermatia illucens) larvae meal(2023-10-05) Muleya, Thivhalitshi Thomas; Fushai, F.; Bhebhe, E.The objectives of the study were to evaluate the efficacy of sprouted cowpea (Vigna unguiculata)- maize (Zea mays) grower and finisher broiler diets, and of 5%, versus 10% fortification of the diets with full-fat Black Soldier fly (Hermatia illucens) larvae meal (BSFLM). The trial used 360 -day-old Ross 308 broiler chicks reared in an open, deep litter house. Chicks were placed in 30 wire mesh experimental pens of 150 cm length × 144 cm width. Chicks were uniformly managed during the starter (21 days) phase, feeding on a commercial starter. The chicks received supplementary stress vitamins (Virbac© Samrand Business Park, Centurion, Pretoria, South Africa) during days 1-6. On day-22, sexed broilers were randomly allotted at 12 birds per pen in a 5 (diet) X 2 (sex) factorial arrangement with three replications per treatment. Grower phase (days 22-35) and finisher phase (days 36-42) dietary treatments were: 0% BSFLM sprouted cowpea negative control (NC) diets, positive control (PC) commercial diets, low (LF 5% BSFLM) and high (HF 5% BSFLM) fat sprouted cowpea diets with 5% BSFLM diets, and 10% BSFLM sprouted cowpea diets. Feed intake (FI), body weight gain (BWG), feed conversion ratio (FCR) and mortality rates were measured on a weekly basis. Upon slaughter, the weight of the warm dressed carcass, carcass components, visceral organs and abdominal fat were measured while meat quality (pH, drip loss and meat colour) were evaluated. During the grower phase, broilers on the PC consumed more (p<0.05) feed and achieved higher weight gain (p<0.05) than those on the NC and LF 5% BSFLM diets. The PC birds achieved lower (p<0.05) FCR compared to broilers on the NC and HF 5% BSFLM. During the finisher phase, broilers on the PC consumed more (p<0.05) feed than those on the 10% BSFLM diet. Cumulatively throughout the grower-finisher phases, broilers on the PC had higher feed intake and weight gain (p<0.05) than on the NC and HF 5% BSFLM diets and attained higher (p<0.05) final live weight with lower (p<0.05) FCR compared to broilers on the NC. Male broilers consumed more (p<0.05) feed during the grower phase and by slaughter, with higher p<0.05) weight gain during finishing, which resulted in heavier (p<0.05) live weight at slaughter. There was no (p>0.05) sex * diet interaction on parameters for measuring the growth performance. Broilers on the PC had larger (p<0.05) breast weights compared to birds on the NC and the 10% BSFLM diets and had higher (p<0.05) thigh weights than those on all other treatments. Broilers on the PC had a larger (p<0.05) spleen than birds on the NC and the 5% BSFLM diets. The females had lower thigh and liver weights compared to the males (p<0.050). Birds on the 10% BSFLM had lower drip loss compared to those on the negative control (p<0.05). In conclusion, broilers fed the sprouted cowpea-maize diet without BSFLM had low feed intake, weight gain and high FCR during the growing phase, and these effects were vi cumulatively reflected at slaughter. Compared to the NC and PC diets, BSFLM fortification of sprouted cowpea-maize diets resulted in intermediate parameters for broiler growth performance. Based on the growth performance, it was concluded that dietary efficacy was in the order NC <5 % LF<5% HF< 10 % BSFLM < PC fortification.Item Embargo Effect of Avocado (Persea americana Mill) oil inclusion in the Tris-based extender on the quality of Boer goat semen stored at different temperatures(2023-10-05) Moholola, Khomotso Cathrine; Mikasi, M. S.; Raseona, A. M.; Netshipale, A. J.Semen extenders are chemical mediums used for preserving, and protecting spermatozoa against different shocks while processing, storing and transportation for use in artificial insemination (Raheja et al., 2018). There are challenges with the preservation of goat semen for Artificial Insemination (AI). Spermatozoa with poor viability were observed when goat semen was extended with egg yolk and skimmed milk because of the seminal plasma secreted by the bulbourethral gland (Cabrera et al., 2005). This study aimed to evaluate the effect of Avocado oil on Boer goats semen quality parameters during liquid storage (5˚C,17 ˚C and 24˚C). Semen samples collected from four matured Boer goats were pooled and Tris-egg yolk extenders were supplemented with Avocado oil at 0, 1, 2 and 3%. The samples were then stored at 5˚C,17 ˚C, 24˚C and several sperm parameters (motility, viability, morphology, and DNA fragmentation) were assessed at 0, 24, 48 and 72 h intervals. Results showed that the supplementation of Tris egg yolk with 1%, 2% and 3% Avocado oil improved total motility, progressive motility, morphology, and viability when stored at 5˚C for up to 72 hours and when stored at 17˚C for 24 hours. However, non-fragmented DNA improved when 3% of Avocado oil was added to the Tris egg yolk when kept at 5˚C from 24 hours. Therefore, it was concluded that the Boer goat spermatozoa quality could be preserved for 72 hours at 5˚C when adding 2% and 3% of Avocado oil to the Tris egg yolk extender. Semen with inclusions of Avocado oil in Tris-egg yolk can preserve Boer goat semen for 24 hours or less when stored at 17°C.Item Embargo Evaluation of Aloe vera (Aloe barbadensis linné) and Ginger (Zingiber officinale) as phytogenic supplements for broilers(2023-10-05) Moalamedi, Masechaba; Fushai, F.; Netshipale, A. J.The study investigated the potential of Aloe vera (Aloe barbadensis linné - AVE) and Ginger (Zingiber officinale - GNE) extracts as phytogenic supplements for broilers, as indicated by the growth, slaughter performance, visceral organ sizes, and meat quality broilers. A total of 480 Ross 308 broilers were housed in a deep litter open-sided house, stocked at 15 birds per 150 cm length × 144 cm width mesh-wire pen. During the starter period (days 1-22), the chicks were fed a diet containing 220 g kg-1 CP and 17.8 MJ ME kg-1. For the grower (days 23-36) and finisher (days 37-50) phases, the chicks were assigned to pens in a 2 (sex) × 4 (additive) factorial design, with two diets used for each phase: an antibiotic-free negative control (NC) diet and a positive control (PC) diet containing zinc bacitracin 15% granular at 500g/tonne plus 12% valinomycin sodium at 500g/tonne. Birds on the PC diet had access to clean drinking water only, while those on the NC diet received water without or with 2 mL/L of AVE or GNE. Birds on the GNE had small livers (33.5±1.37g), which suggested liver damage or a lower metabolic load. Birds on AVE had low (17.0±0.15g) abdominal fat, which indicated leaner growth. Males consumed more feed (145.5 ±2.74g) than the females (136.4±2.74g) during the finisher phase, and by slaughter (54.3±1.77 versus 52.6±1.77 g, respectively). The treatments affected the mean feed intake (132.7±2.27 - 149.5±2.27 g), weight gain (46.7±2.50 -77.7±2.50 g/bird/day), and FCR (3.4±0.14 - 2.1±0.14) across all growth phases, with the best performance recorded in birds on the PC. Females had higher percentage wings (4.8±0.18 versus 4.4±0.18 %) and breasts (33.9±0.96 versus 29.8 ±0.96 %) on the PC, compared to the NC treatment. In conclusion, the plant extracts did not improve broiler growth performance, carcass characteristics, and meat quality parameters at the 2 ml/L dosage.Item Embargo Effect of strain and skip a day technique on growth performance and carcass characteristics of broiler chickens(2023-10-05) Makharamedzha, Murunwa; Bhebhe, E.A skip a day feeding technique could mitigate the ever-increasing cost of feeds and the undesirable excessive adipose fat. The aim of this study was to determine effect of broiler strain (Ross 308 and Arbor Acres) and different regimes of the skip-a-day technique on growth performance and carcass characteristics of broiler chickens. A 2×3 factorial study was carried out to determine the growth performance and carcass characteristics of two broiler strains. Each treatment was replicated three times with 25 birds per replicate and thus a total of 450 unsexed chickens for this study. The treatments were as follows: (i) control-Adlibitum feeding, (ii) Treatment 1-birds were fed one day, and the next day was skipped, (iii) Treatment 2-birds were fed two days and the third day was skipped. Carcass weight, abdominal fat, mortality, and average weight gain were determined and recorded. Data was analysed using analysis of variance (ANOVA) for a 2×3 factorial experiment using the General Linear Model (GLM) procedures of Minitab 18 statistical software. Feed intake per bird per week (g) was significantly different between all three treatments (P<0.01) and followed a consistent yet unexpected pattern across strains with feeding regime zero (control pen)>FR0- Feeding regime one>FR1- Feeding regime two>FR2. Weekly feed intake per bird per week was significantly higher for FR0 (P<0.01) compared to FR1 and FR2 with the latter two treatments having non-significant means (P>0.05) and strain significantly affected feed intake where the Ross 308 strain consumed more feed than the Arbor Acres strain (P<0.05). Broiler strain as well as strain by skip-a-day level interaction effects were not significant for all the carcass parameters (P>0.05). The overall results of this study have shown that the Ross 308 and Arbor Acres broilers did not differ significantly in the body weight, body weight gain, feed intake, and abdominal fatness (P>0.05). However, the Ross 308 broilers strains consumed more feed than the Arbor Acres strain, but both strains converted the feed with the similar efficiency.Item Embargo Effects of molasses-enhanced fermentation and exogenous enzymes on the nutritive value of castor bean (Ricinus Communis L) oil cake for growing pigs(2023-10-05) Ramukanda, Mulisa; Fushai, F.; Netshipale, A. J.Castor bean (Ricinus communis L) is highly valued for its oil, which has diverse applications in the pharmaceutical industry. Castor bean oil cake (CBOC) contains high levels of protein, but contains highly toxic compounds that require proper processing before feeding to livestock. The aim of the study was to evaluate optimum solid fermentation for CBOC, and the effects on nutrient digestibility, nitrogen balance, or plasma metabolites of 10% of the optimally fermented CBOC (FCBOC) in a diet fortified with exogenous fibrolytic enzymes. In experiment 1, a micro-fermentation study was conducted to evaluate the optimum level of supplementary Voermol (Product V10257; molasses containing 33 g/kg CP, 300 g/kg moisture, 6-9.2 g/kg Ca, 0.8 g/kg P and, 9.5 MJ ME/kg), 75% BRIX 75) in relation to the period of anaerobic solid fermentation of the CBOC. The experiment followed a completely randomized, 4 (molasses level; 0%, 5%, 10%, and 15%) x 4 (fermentation days; 0, 4, 7, and 10-day) factorial design, replicated three times. The change in proximate and detergent fibre composition was evaluated, and the pH of the fermented CBOC (FCBOC) measured as an indicator of fermentation intensity and extent, which are key determinants of silage quality and anerobic stability. Highest (P<0.05) OM was observed in 5% Voermol, 4- day FCBOC, similarly (P>0.05) followed by 10% Voermol, 4% fermented FCBOC, and least (P<0.05) OM in 15% Voermol, 7- day FCBOC, followed in the increasing (P<0.05) order 10% Voermol, 4-day fermented FCBOC>15% Voermol, 4-day fermented FCBOC. Treatment effects on ash were inverse to the OM (P<0.05) The fat content decreased (P<0.05) with 7, and 10-day fermentation, while 15% Voermol inclusion decreased (P<0.05) the fat content. The lowest pH (3.89) was achieved with 5% Voermol inclusion and 7-day fermentation. In experiment 2, the effects of including 10% inclusion of the optimally (5% Voermol, 7-day fermentation) fermented FCBOC in the pig's diet, and the efficacy of fibrolytic enzymes were investigated. Experimental diets were a standard maizesoybean diet (0% FCBOC), and an iso-nutrient, 10% FCBOC diet, each with (+) and without (-) 500g/tonne of Ronozyme® WX CT (EC-3.2.1.8, 1000 FXU/g endo-1,4-β-xylanase). Eight growing (31.88 ± 1.63 kg live weight) male Large White x Landrace pigs in metabolic cages were assigned to diets in a randomized 2 (diet) x 2 (enzyme) factorial arrangement within a two balanced 4 (period) X 4 (diet) Latin squares. Each feeding period consisted of 9 days dietary adaptation, plus five days of feed intake measurement, and the total collection of faeces and urine, from which nutrient digestibility, and parameters of N balance (Nitrogen intake, Urine Nitrogen Output, Feacal Nitrogen Output, Total Nitrogen Excretion, Absorbed Nitrogen, Nitrogen Retention, Nitrogen Utilization, Biological Value Feed Protein , and Apparent N digestibility were calculated. Blood was collected by jugular venepuncture into 10ml serum vacutainers on the last day of each period, from which Glucose, Urea, Creatinine, total protein, albumin, globulin, alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, alkaline phosphatase, bilirubin, cholesterol and triglyceride were analysed. In conclusion, based on the depletion of organic substrates, intensity and extent of CBOC fermentation, optimum fermentation was considered to be through 5% supplementary Voermol and 7-day ensilage. The 10% dietary inclusion of the optimally fermented FCBOC was not detrimental to nutrient digestibility, nitrogen balance, or plasma metabolites, which were not affected by the fibrolytic enzymes.Item Open Access Effects of sprouting or roasting cowpeas (vigna unguiculata (L.) walp as protein source in diets for Southern African Windsnyer Type, Large White X Landrace and three -way crossbred growing pigs(2023-10-05) Lubisi, Mfanuzile Welcome; Fushai, F.; Baloyi, J. J.In poorly resourced settings, livestock feeding options are often narrowed to the affordable, readily available legume grains, and to their most convenient biological or thermal processing methods. The tolerance of different pig genotypes to toxic legume anti-nutritional factors and to the negative impact on dietary dietary nutrient availability may differ. The study aimed to determine the capacity of different local pig genotypes to utilise differently processed cowpeas (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp) as a dietary protein source during growth. Preliminary studies were conducted to determine the effective sprouting or roasting of cowpeas for feeding to growing pigs. In a sprouting experiment 1, cowpeas were soaked for 12 hours, open-sprouted over 1, 2, 3 and 4 days, with daily sampling, and the samples rapidly sundried to terminate the sprouting. In a roasting experiment 2, cowpeas were placed in an empty, preheated (150°C interior temperature) cast-iron drum, and roasted for 10, 15, 20, or 30 minutes, coincident with 55°C, 95°C, 105°C, and 130°C respective sample grain temperatures. The effectiveness of both processing procedures was evaluated by determining the in vitro dry matter digestibility (IVDMD) of the processed, compared to raw cowpeas. The IVDMD was estimated using a standard three-step (gastric, small, large intestines) in vitro pig digestion procedure, in a setup modified for micro (0.5 g) sample digestion within Ankom® 57 filter bags. Both the sprouting and roasting in vitro digestion were completely randomised, with 14 replicates per sample. Cowpea samples obtained at key sprouting or roasting points were analised for proximate and detergent fibre components, and for trypsin inhibitor activity (TIA), as auxiliary variable determinants of IVDMD. The steps 1-2 (gastricileal) IVDMD coefficient dropped (p<0.05) in the 2-day (0.78 ± 0.00486) and 3-day (0.77 ± 0.00486) cowpea sprouts, with equally high (p<0.05) step 3 IVDMD for 2-day and 3-day sprouts (0.13 ± 0.00605) compared to 1-day (0.07 ± 0.00605) and 4-day (0.10 ± 0.00605) sprouts. The total (steps 1-3) IVDMD increased (p<0.05) in 2-day (0.91 ± 0.00336) and 4-day (0.90 ± 0.00336) sprouts. Roasting did not affect steps 1-2 IVDMD. The 20-minute (105° C) roasting resulted in high (p<0.05) step 3 (0.17 ± 0.00734) and the total (0.98 ± 0.00449) IVDMD. The compartmental and total IVDMD, and quantitative change in chemical components and TIA indicated 4-day sprouting, and 20-minute (105° C) roasting were respectively most effective for cowpea processing, procedures which were subsequently used to process cowpeas in bulk for a metabolic, and a performance feeding trial. For the metabolic trial, raw (control) and the differently processed cowpeas were used to constitute iso-nutrient (15% CP, 14.17 MJ ME kg-1) maizebased grower pig diets. The metabolic trial used nine growing pigs, three each of Windsnyer (W), Large White (LW) X Landrace (LW) and the 3-way crossbred (W X LW X LR) genotypes. The pigs were inducted into the experiment at respective initial live weights 11.0 ± 1.15. 4 ± 1.15, and 12 ± 1.15 kg. Pigs were randomly allocated to diets for a factorial experiment within three balanced, 3 (genotype) x 3 (period) Latin squares with 12-day feeding periods split into sevenday adaptation, plus five days measurement of feed intake, and the total faecal and urine excretions. Metabolic size-scaled feed consumption was high (122.6 ± 3.01 g kg-1 Live weight (LW) 0.75) for the raw cowpeas, compared to the roasted cowpea diet (108.8 ± 3.01 g kg LW0.75) (p<0.05). On scaled bases, feed consumption was higher on the sprouted cowpeas compared to the raw diet (P<0.05). Sprouting and roasting both reduced the ash digestibility. Ash digestibility was lower (P<0.05) for LW x LR compared to W x LW x LR pigs. Genotype x Diet interaction was observed for ash, fat, ADF and NDF, however the main mean showed non-significant (P<0.05) for fat, ADF and NDF. Pig responses to the differently processed cowpeas were further evaluated in a 60-day growth trial which used a total of 36 animals, twelve male, 28-day weaned pigs of each of the W, LW X LR, and W x LW x LR genotypes (respective initial live weights 15.0 ± 2.3, 39.0 ± 1.4 and 37.0 ± 1.2 Kg). To balance the initial weights across treatments, pigs were blocked by weight within genotype, and randomly allocated within the weight blocks to the experimental diets for a 3 (genotype) X 3 (diets) factorial experiment replicated four times. The experimental diets were a standard, maize-soybean commercial pig grower (control) feed, and iso-nutrient (14.26 ± 1.2 MJ ME kg, 160.0 ± 2.1 g CP kg), roasted or sprouted cowpea-maize grower pig diets. Pig growth and slaughter parameters, visceral organ sizes, and plasma biomarkers of protein, energy utilization, and organ function were measured. Pig growth was different by genotype in the order LW x LR ≥ LW x LR x W > W (p<0.05). Feed intake ranked LW x LR ≥ LW x LR x W > W (p<0.05). Dietary treatments ranked control > sprouted cowpeas > roasted cowpeas diet (p<0.05). The FCR was similar (p>0.05) across the genotypes, but differed by diet in the order control (3.41 ± 0.551) < sprouted cowpeas (4.94 ± 0.551) ≤ roasted cowpeas (5.93 ± 0.551) diet (p<0.05). Back fat was thickest on the control diet (9.91 ± 0.321) compared to the other diets (p<0.05). The W pigs dressed inferior (p<0.05) compared to the other genotypes. Scaled on the metabolic weight, the liver and kidneys were large (p<0.05) in W pigs, and the kidneys enlarged (0.567 ± 0.0105 %) (p<0.05) in pigs on the roasted cowpea diet. The W x L x LR had low alkaline phosphatase activity (99.50 ± 6.090 U/L), W had low creatinine (44.94 ± 2.32 μmol/L) and cholesterol. (1.23 ± 0.0833 mmol/L); and LW x LR had low plasma total protein (69.20 ± 0.915 g/L). Pigs on the sprouted cowpea diet had high (p<0.05) urea (5.30 ± 0.255 mmol/L) and cholesterol (1.82 ± 0.0833 mmol/L). Albumin was low in pigs on the sprouted diet (35.58 ± 0.902 g/L) and on the roasted diet (35.60 ± 0.902 g/L), while alkaline phosphatase activity was high on the sprouted (110.92 ± 6.090 U/L) and the roasted (130.13 ± 6.090 U/L) diet (p<0.05). In conclusion, compartmental and total IVDMD, and quantitative change in chemical components and TIA indicated 4-day sprouting, and 20-minute (105° C) roasting were respectively most effective for cowpea processing. The observed genotype x diet interactions on N balance parameters confirmed genotype influences on the digestive capacity, and intermediary nutrient metabolism in pigs fed the raw, and differently processed cowpeas, which suggested unique adaptive digestive and metabolic traits among the experimental pig genotypes. The underlying mechanisms need further investigation. Roasting and sprouting of dietary cowpeas produced diets which supported similar, slower growth compared to the soybean-based diet, with higher FCR by pigs on the sprouted, compared to the roasted cowpea diet. Further research is recommended to evaluate the cost-effectiveness and practicality of cowpea sprouting or roasting in large-scale pig production systems.Item Open Access Effects of feeding sprouted Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) diets fortified with exogenous enzymes on egg production of red and white amberlink layers(2023-05-19) Muavha, Nkhumbuleni Remember; Fushai, F.; Netshipale, A. J. N.The objective of the study was to investigate the effects of feeding sprouted sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) diets fortified with exogenous enzymes on egg production by Red and White Amberlink layers. Egg production by 216 Red and White Amberlink layers which were 16 weeks into production was evaluated over a six-week period. The layers were housed in a naturally ventilated battery house, placed in forty-eight 45 cm length × 45 cm width × 42 cm height cages, each stocked at 3 birds/cage. The birds were allocated to treatments in a randomised 3 (diets) X 2 (enzymes) X 2 (strain) factorial arrangement replicated six times. Experimental diets were Meadow Powerlay Late Lay (Product V16418) as a positive control (PC), and iso-nutrient (70 g/kg Crude Fibre, 130 g/kg CP, 5 g/kg Lysine), sprouted, and raw (negative control (NC) sorghum-soybean layer diets. A duplicate mix of each diet was fortified with 500 g/tonne of a custom multi-enzyme cocktail (xylanase Endo-1, 4-Beta-Xylanase (EC-3.2.1.8), 2440 U/kg, Endo-1, 3 (4)-Beta-Glucanase (EC-3.2.1.6), 304 U/kg, and 6-phytase (IUB 3.1.3.26), 1220 U/kg). Layers on the raw sorghum diet had low (P<0.05) feed intake. Interaction (p = 0.0038) of the layer strain, diet and enzyme occurred for the laying rate. Highest (P<0.05) laying rate was attained when the Red Amberlink layers were on the commercial diet with enzymes, and when White Amberlink layers were on the same diet without enzymes, similar (P>0.05) to when both strains were on the enzyme supplemented, sprouted sorghum diet. Lower (P< 0.05) laying rates were observed when both strains were on the raw sorghum, without (P>0.05) enzyme effect compared to other treatments. Laying rate in layers on the sprouted sorghum diet was not different (P> 0.05) from the commercial diet, and significantly higher (P< 0.05) raw sorghum-based diet with or without enzyme fortification. The net effect of treatments on laying rate was in the dietary order commercial feed >sprouted sorghum >raw sorghum (P<0.05). The Red Amberlink strain laid larger (P<0.05) eggs than the White strain. Expressed on both egg number and egg weight basis, the FCR were in the dietary order commercial feed >sprouted sorghum >raw sorghum (P<0.01). Strain*enzyme interaction occurred for egg weight (P<0.05), whereby the enzymes reduced (P<0.05) egg weight in Red Amberlink layers when on the sprouted sorghum diet, which was quantitatively similar on all other treatments, except for opposite, quantitative enzyme effect on White Amberlink layers on the commercial diet. Though inferior to the commercial diet, the comparative egg production and FCR largely supported replacement of the commercial, with sorghum diets, more so when the sorghum is sprouted. Treatment interaction on egg production and size suggested both beneficial and deleterious enzyme action, likely the effects of unique dietary chemical matrices.Item Open Access Efficient utilization of Macadamia oil cake based diets in ruminants(2023-05-19) Mkhonto, Zinhle Debra; Baloyi, J. J.; Mikasi, M. S.Ruminants and rumen bacteria form a symbiotic relationship. However, because of nitrogen (N) inefficiency, this interdependent relationship loses energy and protein. Strategic feeding of ruminants with diets containing non-conventional feedstuffs appears to be a promising way to enhance proficiency of protein and energy utilization in ruminants. Macadamia Oil Cake (MOC) can be classified among the non-conventional ingredients that can be included in animal diets, without resulting in any negative effects. The present study evaluated the utilization of MOC-based diets in ruminants. Eight Boer and eight Pedi bucks initially weighing an average of 34 ± 8.39 kg and aged 18 to 24 months were housed individually in metabolic cages (1.8 m × 0.58 m × 1.33 m) to measure nutrient intake, apparent digestibility, nitrogen (N) retention and microbial protein yield. The goats were balanced for breed and allocated in a completely randomized design (CRD) to four dietary treatments containing 0, 10, 15, and 20% MOC inclusion. Microbial protein yield was assessed using the urinary excretion of purine derivative (PD) allantoin method to estimate the efficient utilization of nitrogen in the MOC-based diets. The study was carried out for 21 days, beginning with 14 days for acclimatization and seven days for sample collection. MOC inclusion significantly affected (P˂0.05) the intake of ether extract (EE), neutral detergent fibre (NDF) and acid detergent fibre (ADF). However, the intake of dry matter (DM) , organic matter (OM) and crude protein (CP) were not significantly affected (P˃0.05) by MOC supplementation. Significant differences (P˂0.05) were observed for OM and EE apparent digestibility of MOC-based diets by goats. However, No significant differences (P>0.05) were found in the apparent digestibilities of DM, CP, NDF and ADF. Nitrogen (N) retention was not significantly affected (P>0.05). All goats had positive N-retention values. Urinary allantoin excretion differed significantly (P<0.05) within treatments and affected (P<0.05) microbial protein yield. To conclude, the results attained in this study imply that MOC does not affect apparent digestibility of DM, CP and N-retention but enhanced microbial protein yield. Therefore, MOC showed to be a promising protein source to be utilized in goat diets without significantly causing any adverse effects.NRFItem Open Access Effects of sprouted cowpea (vigna unguiculata) dietary inclusion with ronozyme ® ProAct supplementation on broiler performance(2023-05-19) Mariba, Nancy; Fushai, F.; Bhebbe, E.The study evaluated the efficacy of maize-sprouted cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) diets when fed with supplementary exogenous enzymes on the growth (live weight, live weight gain, feed conversion ratio) and carcass parameters of Ross-308 broilers. Cowpeas were screened for viable seed and sterilised by 30-minute immersion in 2% sodium hypochlorite aqueous solution. Germinated by 12-hour soaking in tap water prior to 4-day open-air, 2-hourly irrigated sprouting on steel screens, and rapid, hot sun-drying to 35% DM spread on black plastic sheeting laid on a concrete surface. Balanced [160 g CP kg-1 DM] cowpea-based grower and finisher diets were mixed at 0, 50, 100% with iso-nutrient respective commercial feed mixes (controls). Duplicates of the experimental diets were fortified with 200 g/tonne of Rononzyme ® ProAct (75,000 PROT units g-1 serine protease). Nine hundred chicks were randomly allotted at 30 birds/pen in a 3 (diet) x 2 (enzyme) factorial experiment replicated five times. Random sample (8 birds/pen) live weight were evaluated on a weekly basis. Treatments were subjected to the analysis of variance using Minitab Statistical package version 18 (Minitab, 2017). Treatment means were separated using Tukey’s test at 5% level of significance. The maize-sprouted cowpea inclusion rate had no effect (P>0.05) on feed consumption (g/b/d). Grower feed with 100 maize-sprouted cowpea inclusion had a significantly (P<0.05) lower live weight gain (45.0 g/b/d) (LWG) and consequently live weight at day 35 (LW35) compared to SCG0 and SCG50 which were not different. Enzyme fortification had no effect on all growth parameters in both grower and finisher phases. During the finisher phase, birds on maize-cowpea diets had significantly higher (P<0.05) feed consumption (g/b/d) compared to the control diet (SCF0). Diet SCF100 had the lowest (P<0.05) live weight at day 42 (LW42) compared to SCF0 and SCF50, and eventually had the highest feed conversion ratio (FCR). Cumulatively, grower-finisher (day 22-42) live weight gain (LWG22-42) was in the dietary order SCG0> SCG50>SCG100 (P<0.05). The feed conversion ratio (FCR22-42) was in the dietary order SCG0< SCG500.05) affect the abdominal viscera. The enzyme had no effect (P>0.05) on the slaughter parameters except the proportional weight (%) of the heart. The maize-sprouted cowpea diets resulted in a low value for the meat redness coordinate (a) (P < 0.05). The yellowness coordinate (b) was in the order SCG0-SCF0>SCG50-SCF50>SCG100-SCF100 (P < 0.05). Meat water holding capacity and the shear force were higher on the SCG0-SCF0 compared to the SCG100-SCG100-SCF100 feeding regime (P<0.05). In conclusion, dilution of the control with the sprouted cowpea diet reduced the live weight gain, feed efficiency ratio and carcass weight, and caused adverse effect on meat quality, with more adverse effects at the 100%, compared to the 50% dilution level. Adverse metabolic and physiological effects were v indicated by the enlargement of the liver and gizzard at the high inclusion of sprouted cowpea in broiler diets.Item Open Access Effects of exogenous enzymes on the nutritive value of macadamia spp. nut oil cake as a protein source for growing pigs(2023-05-19) Rambau, Maemu Queen; Fushai, F.; Mikasi, M. S.The current high cost and scarcity of the conventional stock feeds, and the predicted long-term impact of climate change on their production are major risks to sustainable animal production in the smallholder sector in South Africa. The present study investigated the nutritive value of Macadamia (Macadamia spp.) nut oil cake (MOC), and the efficacy of exogenous enzymes to enhance its value as an alternative protein source in growing pig diets. In an enzyme-screening in vitro study (experiment 1), 3-step (pepsin + pancreatin + Viscozyme) porcine digestion was employed to compare the digestive efficacy on MOC of a custom enzyme cocktail containing 3000 FTU g -1 6-phytase (IUB 3e1.3.26), 7270 U g -1 endo-1,4-Beta-Xylanase (EC-3.2.1.8), 300 U g -1 alpha amylase (EC-3.2.1.1), 6000 g -1 subtilisin protease (EC-3.4.21.62), 532 U g -1 endo-1,4-beta-glucanase (IUB 3.2.1.6), and Ronozyme® WX 2000 CT (UB 3.2.1.8 endo‐1,4‐β‐xylanase, 200FXU/g) . The experiment was performed in a completely randomized design with six replicates per treatment. In experiment 2, the experimental diets were a balanced, standard commercial maize-soybean diet, and an iso-nutrient, 10% MOC-maize-growing diet, each with a duplicate supplemented with 500g/tonne of the custom enzyme cocktail. Eight F1 Large White X Landrace piglets (15.3 ± 1.91 kg live weight (LW) were assigned to diets in a 2 x 2 factorial arrangement, in a duplicated, balanced 4 × 4 Latin square design. An 8-day feeding period was used in the Latin squares, consisting of 3 days adaptation, and 5 days of feed intake measurement, and the total collection of faecal and urine excreta. In vitro, the enzymes did not affect DM digestibility(P>0.05). Neither of the enzymes altered the partial gastric-small intestine (19.9-22-8), colon (21.3-22.8) and the total (41.2-44.4) IVDMD of MOC (0.05). In vivo, the 10% MOC diet had low (p<0.05) digestibility of crude protein, with no (p>0.05) effect on the digestibility of other chemical components. Scaled to the LW, 10% MOC dietary inclusion reduced (p<0.05) the NR. The NR was higher (p<0.05) on the 0%, compared to the 10% MOC diets only when the diets contained the exogenous enzymes. Scaled to the LW0.75, the 0% MOC dietary inclusion reduced (p<0.05) the NR. Dietary inclusion of MOC at 10% marginally reduced the digestibility of CP, and the NR. In v conclusion, the IVDMD of MOC was low, and not improved by fortification with fibrolytic exogenous enzyme cocktails. In vivo nutrient digestibility, and N balance responses to the 10% MOC diet were similar to a standard diet, which supported the 10 % dietary inclusion of MOC as an alternative protein source for weaned, fast-growing Large White pigs. A more potent exogenous proteinase and or carbohydrase enzymes could be effective tools to improve dietary efficacy and protein efficiencyItem Open Access The effect of tris aloe vera (barbadensis miller) gel on chilled and frozen-thawed bull spermatozoa quality(2023-05-19) Seshoeni, Kenny; Mikasi, M. S.; Netshipale, A. J.; Raseona, A. M.Semen extenders protect sperm from cold shock, osmotic stress, and alterations in membrane fluidity and permeability plus provide energy substrates for sperm metabolism. Egg yolk is one of the most common additives of animal origin that are used for semen preservation, however, it has become a suspect for facilitating the transmission of diseases. Tris-aloe vera gel have several beneficial properties, such as anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antiviral and antibacterial features. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of Tris-aloe vera gel (TAG) extender on the quality of bull spermatozoa. In experiment 1, the effect of Tris-Aloe vera gel extender was assessed after the semen was chilled at 5 0C in a refrigerator for different storage times up to 120 hours, and frozen in liquid nitrogen at -196 0C for 5 days in experiment two. Assessment was done for morphology, motility, and viability of bull spermatozoa. Semen samples were collected from four (4) Nguni bulls with proven fertility records, aged between 6 and 8 years kept at the University of Venda Experimental Farm under intensive farming practice. Collected semen samples were pooled and diluted at a ratio of 1:5 (semen to extender) in Tris-egg yolk (TEY) as a control and TAG at three different concentration levels 12%, 16% and 20% of Aloe vera gel (AVG). In experiment one, diluted semen samples were evaluated immediately after the extension using computer aided sperm analyzer (CASA) before storage at 5 0C, followed by sperm analysis after every 24 hours for 120 hours. In experiment two, freshly collected and diluted semen samples were cryopreserved and stored at (-196 0C) in LN2 for 5 days and evaluated thereafter. The results were subjected to the analysis of variance (ANOVA) for statistical analysis using a general linear model (GLM) procedures of Minitab 19 program. Tris-egg yolk extender (TEY) with 0% aloe vera gel was used as a control. In experiment one, it was found that TEY showed consistency in keeping motility at an average of 100% (p<0.05) after 120 h of chilling semen samples. Semen samples extended in Tris-aloe vera gel had a decrease in spermatozoa motility as storage time increased. Experiment two discovered that AVG can equally be used to substitute v egg yolk in tris-based extender and be able to cryopreserve Nguni bull semen for a period of 5 days, this is due to a fact that there was no significant difference (P<0.01) in spermatozoa progressive motility, from both TEY and TAGs post thaw. It was also found that morphological normal spermatozoa were above 80% post thaw. Semen extended in TEY shows a great deal of consistency in maintaining high spermatozoa viability throughout the chilling process.Item Embargo Effect of spermatozoa viability, culture receptacle, incubation, and intracytoplasmic sperm injection on vitro production of cattle embryoa using epididymal spermatozoa(2022-07-15) Raseona, Andrea Motswetla; Barry, D. M.; Owiny, O. D.; Nedambale, T.L.In an event of an unexpected death, injury, or inability of a bull to serve, spermatozoa can be harvested from the epididymides to enable the propagation of valuable germplasm from genetically superior males. Recovering bull spermatozoa from the epididymis of dead breeders presents the last opportunity to use the gametes and therefore, the need for the most efficient preservation and utilization of the recovered spermatozoa is paramount. One of the unique ways of preserving the male genetic material of cattle is the use of assisted reproductive technologies. The present study focused primarily on the production of in vitro cattle embryos using epididymal spermatozoa by firstly seeking the effective spermatozoa extender and preservation method, and secondly by assessing the effects of culture receptacles and incubation methods following intracytoplasmic sperm injection. In a series of experiments, ejaculated and epididymal spermatozoa were collected, chilled, cryopreserved, and used for in vitro embryo production. The viability of chilled bovine spermatozoa recovered from the epididymis stored at 5 °C for 24 h and diluted with Triladyl® or modified Ham’s F10 was assessed in the first experiment. The short-term preserved (120 h at 5 °C) ejaculated spermatozoa demonstrated a higher motility rate than epididymal sperm, however, epididymal spermatozoa harvested immediately after bull slaughter, extended with Triladyl® was found to have a higher motility rate (P < 0.05) than spermatozoa harvested 24 h post chilling of the epididymides at 5 °C diluted in modified Ham’s F10 culture media. A significant decline in viability was also demonstrated after 72 h of chilling at 5 °C with the least percentage of live cells detected with modified Ham’s F10 extended epididymal spermatozoa harvested 24 h post-mortem. Furthermore, less than 10% of acrosome defects were demonstrated across all the spermatozoa samples. It was concluded that refrigeration of epididymides at 5 °C for 24 h before the recovery of spermatozoa cells was able to sustain good spermatozoa motility when Triladyl® extender was used. The viability of frozen-thawed bull semen collected from the bull’s ejaculate and cauda epididymis was also evaluated. Similar to the observations on spermatozoa chilling in the first experiment, ejaculated spermatozoa had a higher post-thaw motility rate (P < 0.05) than epididymal sperm. However, no significant difference in post-thaw motility rate was demonstrated amongst epididymal spermatozoa recovered immediately and 24 h post-mortem (P > 0.05). The post-thaw percentage of acrosome defects, as well as the live cells, was found to be similar for both ejaculated and epididymal sperm. It was concluded that cooling of epididymides at 5 °C for 24 h before the recovery of spermatozoa cells was efficient in preserving post-thaw spermatozoa quality. In the third experiment, the success rates of in vitro embryo production using epididymal bull sperm, French semen straws as culture receptacle, and alternative incubation method was evaluated. The experiment was carried out as a completely randomised design arranged in a 3 x 2 x 2 factorial. The results demonstrated that short-term preserved (120 h at 5 °C) ejaculated spermatozoa produced a higher percentage of in vitro embryos compared to epididymal spermatozoa. However, no significant difference (P > 0.05), in blastocyst development was demonstrated between epididymal spermatozoa retrieved immediately and after 24 h post-mortem, extended in either Triladyl® or modified Ham’s F10, chilled for either 24 or 48 h. Additionally, no significant difference was demonstrated when comparing individual spermatozoa samples using French semen straws as culture receptacles, incubated in the goat doe vagina, versus a standard 5% CO2 incubator. It was concluded that in vitro embryos up to 8 days of development, cultured in French semen straws and incubated in the goat doe vagina, can be produced after fertilization with epididymal bull spermatozoa recovered immediately or after refrigeration of the epididymides at 5 °C for 24 h. Lastly, the study investigated the effect of using French semen straws as embryo culture receptacle and goat doe vagina as an alternative incubator, on in vitro embryo production following intracytoplasmic sperm injection with epididymal spermatozoa. The injected oocytes with epididymal spermatozoa recovered after bull slaughtering or after 24 hours post-mortem, cultured inside French semen straws or micro-droplets, had no difference in embryonic development rates (P > 0.05). Furthermore, when both the standard CO2 incubator and the goat doe vagina were used, no difference in embryo development stages was identified (P > 0.05), with the exception of the cleavage stage where the injected oocytes incubated in goat doe vagina showed lower rates (P < 0.05) as compared to those incubated in the standard CO2 incubator. It was concluded that fertilization and blastocyst development can be accomplished through intracytoplasmic sperm injection with cryopreserved bull epididymal spermatozoa recovered immediately or 24 h post-mortem, using French semen straws as culture receptacles and goat doe vagina as an alternative incubator.Item Open Access Evaluation of Apple (Malus domestica) Cider Vinegar and Garlic (Allium sativum) Extract as Phytogenic Supplements in Broiler Chickens(2022-07-15) Chabalala, Oscar; Fushai, F.; Bhebbe, E.The use of antibiotic growth promoters (AGPs) in poultry may induce antibiotic resistance with risk of accumulation of harmful residues in poultry products, thereby compromising poultry and human health. Apple cider vinegar (ACV) and garlic are phytogenic substances which have been gaining considerable interest due to their ability to improve performance. This study investigated growth promoting effects of drinking-water supplemented with ACV and garlic extract on broilers. A total of 390, day-old Ross broiler chicks were housed in an open, deep litter house divided into 30 pen partitions, each measuring 2.3 m2, to which treatments were allocated in a randomized 2 (sex) x 5 (additives) factorial experiment. Experimental units were allotted to antibiotic free diet plus untreated drinking water (Negative control (NC), antibiotic free diet plus ACV treated drinking water (T1), antibiotic free diet plus garlic treated drinking water (T2), antibiotic free diet plus ACV+garlic treated drinking water (T3) or antibiotic fortified diet plus untreated drinking water (positive control (PC). The experiment was replicated three times. The test period started at the age of 15 days and consisted of two phases: grower (15-28 days of age) and finisher (29-42 days of age). All data were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) using the General Linear Model (GLM) procedures of SPSS. Where main effects were significant, Tukey’s test was used to separate the means. Males had higher feed intake than females (P<0.05) in all growth phases. Weight gain, FCR and mortality of the birds was not affected by sex (P>0.05) in all growth phases. Birds on the PC gained more weight (P<0.05) than birds on T1, T2, T3 and NC during all growth phases. Grower-phase feed intake was similar across treatments (P>0.05), while birds on the PC consumed more feed (P<0.05) during finisher phase than birds on the NC and on ACV and garlic additives. Birds on the PC had a lower grower-phase FCR (P<0.05) than birds on T1, T2, T3 and NC, though with lower FCR during finisher phase to birds on T1 and T3. Mortality was similar for all treatment (P>0.05) throughout the experiment. Dressing percentage was similar across sexes (P>0.05). Birds on the NC exhibited a lower dressing percentage (P<0.05) than all others. Meat vi pH was higher in male birds (P<0.05), and was not affected by additives (P>0.05). Gut digesta pH, proventriculus weight, gizzard weight, gastrointestinal tract length across sexes were not affected by treatment (P>0.05). Birds on the PC had a higher liver weight (P<0.05) than all others, and higher spleen weights than birds on T2 (P<0.05). In conclusion, in the current study, ACV and or garlic additives did not benefit broiler performance.Item Open Access Chemical composition, ruminal degradability and in-vitro post ruminal digestibility of ficus polita and ficus benjamina leaves(2021-06-23) Mufamadi, Thakhani; Fushai, F.; Mikasi, M. S.The aim of the study was to evaluate the chemical composition, rumen degradability and in-vitro ileal digestibility of dry matter (DM) and nitrogen (N) in Ficus polita and Ficus benjamina leaves for optimum utilisation as supplementary protein sources for ruminant livestock. Leaves from Ficus polita and Ficus benjamina were harvested in late summer and in winter from one site within Tshakhuma, Limpopo province, South Africa. Five trees from each species were selected as they randomly occurred along an approximately linear transect of 1 km extending from west to east direction. The leaves were air-dried, milled through a 1 mm screen and analyzed for dry matter (DM), ash, N, neutral detergent fibre (NDF), acid detergent lignin (ADL), acid detergent fibre (ADF) and acid detergent insoluble Nitrogen (ADIN). The DM and N degradability were estimated using approximately 5 g leaf samples which were milled through a 1 mm screen and incubated in duplicate in nylon bags (external dimension: 6 × 12 cm, pore size of 46 μm) inside the rumen of three cannulated Bonsmara steers for 0, 4, 8,16, 24, 48, 72 and 96 hour periods. Parameters to describe the dynamics of ruminal degradability of DM and CP were obtained by fitting the data on the exponential equation P = a + b (1 - e-ct) using the NEWAY computer program, where “p” is the DM and CP disappearance at time t, (potential degradation), “a” is the rapidly degradable fraction, “b” is the slowly degradable fraction, “c” is the degradability rate of the “b” fraction and “t” is the degradation time. Post-ruminal in vitro DM and CP digestibility of the rumen undegradable residues were determined by the pepsin-pancreatin (gastric-small intestinal) digestion procedure. Data was subjected to analysis of variance in a 2 (season) x 2 (species) factorial treatment layout. Interaction between the season and species was significant (P<0.01) for Ash, CP, ADF, ADL with the ADF and ADL significantly higher (P<0.01) in winter compared to harvested F. polita leaves. For DM, there was a significantly difference for “b” and for the ED at all outflow rates (P<0.01) in both species, and for “a+b” (P<0.05). The insoluble degradable DM fraction ‘b’ were higher in F. polita than in F. benjamina in both dry and wet seasons. The CP disappearance components ‘a’ and ‘b’ differed significantly (P < 0.01) among the two species. Ficus polita leaves had significantly higher CP digestibility at 24-hr and 48-hr than F. benjamina leaves at 24- and 48-h of rumen incubation in both harvest seasons. It can be concluded that species and season affected the chemical composition, in-situ degradability of DM and CP, and in vitro post ruminal digestibility of the Ficus browse species, with the degradable DM and CP for both species adequate to serve as protein supplements to low-quality ruminant feeds.Item Open Access Chemical composition, rumen degradability and post ruminal digestibility of selected soya bean (Glycine Max) cultivars harvested at different growth stages(2020-08-11) Mukosi, Rendani; Baloyi. J. J.; Fushai, F.Soya bean (Glycine max) is a legume that is mostly cultivated for food grain which can be used as high-protein forage for grazing, haying or ensiling. The use of forage soya bean by small holder farmers is currently very limited. The objective of the current study was to evaluate the nutritive value of three trifoliate forage Soya bean cultivars (Locally denoted as 4-LF, PAN, and TGX). The study was carried out at the University of Venda where the soya beans were planted in 63 25L pots (21 pots for each cultivar) which were randomly placed on the floor of an open, wire-net protected house. Forage harvested at three growth stages (pre-anthesis, anthesis and postanthesis). Samples of the forage were analyzed for dry matter (DM), ash, crude protein (CP), neutral detergent fiber (NDF), acid detergent fiber (ADF) micro and macro minerals. Ruminal DM and CP degradability were evaluated in situ by incubation of samples within nylon bags (external dimension: 6 × 12 cm, pore size of 46 μm) in the rumen of three Bonsmara steers for 0, 6, 12, 16, 24, 48, 72, and 96 hours. Estimates of rapidly degradable fraction “a”, slowly degradable fraction “b”, constant outflow rate ‘c’ and the DM or CP degradability (p) at time (t) were estimated by fitting the degradability data into the exponential equation P = a + b (1 - e-ct) using the NEWAY computer programme. Parameters were subjected to ANOVA for a 3 X 3 factorial treatment arrangement using the General Linear Model procedures of MINITAB software (version 17 of 2014). Effective degradability ED) was estimated asED = a + bc at fractional outflow rates of k= (k +c) 2%, 5% and 8%. In vitro enzymatic DM and CP digestibility of rumen undegradable residues collected after 24 and 48-hour incubation was determined by simulating sequential gastro-small intestinal digestion. Cultivar PAN harvested post anthesis had significantly higher (p< 0.05) CP than other cultivars. The CP content increased with growth stage. Cultivar 4LF harvested preanthesis had significantly highest (p< 0.05) NDF. The cultivar had no significant effect (p> 0.05) on DM, ash, CP, NDF, ADF and minerals. Cultivar PAN harvested pre-anthesis had significantly highest (p< 0.05) Mg. The harvest stage significantly affected (p< 0.05) mineral content other than (p> 0.05) Zn and Cu. Cultivar TGX harvested pre-anthesis had significantly highest (p< 0.05) effective degradability of dry matter at k=0.08. Fraction ‘c’ and ED at k= 0.08 were lower (p> 0.05) in cultivar * growth stage interaction in dry matter degradability. Fraction ‘a’ for CP was highest (p< 0.05) for cultivar TGX harvested post-anthesis. Fraction ‘c’ was lower (p> 0.05) for cultivar 4LF harvested at anthesis stage. There was a significant effect (p< 0.05) on crude protein soluble fraction ‘c’ and effective degradability k=0.08 in cultivar and growth stage interaction. There was no significant interaction (p> 0.05) of the cultivar X growth stage on crude protein degradability at 48 hours, IVCPD at 24 and 48 hours with significant effect on crude protein degradation at 24 hours caused by cultivar TGX at pre-anthesis growth stage. In conclusion, growth stage increases the chemical composition of soya bean but does not affect digestibility.Item Open Access Effect of Moringa Oleifera and probiotic inclusion on growth performance carcass characteristics and cost benefit analysis in broiler chicken production(2020-08-11) Ramathithi, Tshilidzi; Bhebhe, E.; Baloyi, J. N.One of the ways to minimise cost and promote health in humans and animals is to use natural feed additives instead of antibiotics. Moringa oleifera (Moringa) is a phytobiotic which possess anti-microbial and immune-modulatory properties and contains high levels of nutrients and it can be used as a feed additive. Probiotics are feed additives which consist of living microorganisms that have beneficial effects on the physiology and health of other organisms. The objective of the study was to determine the effect of various levels of Moringa oleifera and probiotics inclusion on growth performance, carcass characteristics and cost benefit analysis for broiler chicken production. Moringa oleifera leaf powder was purchased from Bethel Farm No:683 Bethel mission Gucksdadt Vryheid in Zululand district AbaQulusi municipality. The study was a 5x2 factorial design with five levels of Moringa and two levels of probiotic. Six hundred (600) Ross 308-day old chicks were received and fed commercial starter. The experimental treatments were randomly divided into five levels of Moringa with and without probiotics introduced through drinking water at grower to finisher phase. The diets were supplemented with different inclusion levels of Moringa (Mo) as follows: 0g/kg (M0), 0.6g/kg (M3), 1.2g/kg (M6), 1.8g/kg (M9), 2.4g/kg (M12) of Moringa oleifera leaf meal (MOLM) and probiotic at P0 (0ml/bird/week), P1 (1 ml/bird/week) of a commercial probiotic administered in water for the first three weeks (starter phase). The experiment had three replications with 20 birds per replicate. MOLM and PRB interaction had no significant effect (P>0.05) on any of growth parameters and same findings with MOLM. Probiotics treatments had significantly reduced (P < 0.05) mortality rate (MTRT) in the grower phase. MOLM×PRB had significant effect on (P<0.01) feed intake (FI), MOLM had significantly reduced (P< 0.05) average bodyweight gain (ABWG) and FI in finisher phase. MOLM and PRB interaction had significant effect (P< 0.05) on dressed weight only and non-significant effect (P>0.05) on the rest of carcass parameters. MOLM inclusion levels did not significantly affect (P>0.05) back fat weight. However, MOLM inclusion level significantly reduced (P< 0.05) dressed weight, shank length, wing weight, drum and thigh weight, back weight and breast muscle weight. PRB inclusion in the diets significantly increased (P< 0.01) shank size and drum + thigh weights (P<0.05). MOLM and PRB inclusion level had no significant effect (P>0.05) on giblets parameters. MOLM and PRB interaction had significant effect on (P<0.05) water holding capacity (WHC) and hardness. MOLM had significant effect (P<0.05) on pH and dripping loss. A significant effect between (MOLM×PRB) Moringa oleifera leaf meal and probiotics (P<0.01) was observed on CD, C* and b*. MOLM had significant effect (P<0.01) on CD, C*, a*, b*, L*, PRB had significant effect (P<0.01) on h*(increased) and a*(reduced) on colour parameters. MOLM fed at P0 resulted in higher mortality at grower stage. It is concluded that MOLM can be added up to 12% with or without PRB without affecting growth performance at finisher phase and carcass characteristics. Inclusion of MOLM up to 12% had good impact on hardness and water holding capacity in the meat. PRB presence improved the growth performance of birds supplemented with MOLM up to 12% inclusion level. MOLM diets were not economically profitable compared to control diet due to high price level of Moringa oleifera powder supplemented in the diets and no best return weight gain per rand invested amongst the diets.Item Open Access Effect of feed withdrawal and strain on laying performance and egg quality of white and brown Hy-Line layers(2019-05-18) Mudau, Mulanga Lenticia; Bhebbe, E.; Netshipale, A. J.The aim of the study was to investigate the effects of feed withdrawal and strain on laying performance and egg quality of White and Brown Hy-line layers. Fifty four hens for each strain (White Hy-Line and Brown Hy-line) aged 18 weeks (point of laying stage) were used in the investigation. Feed withdrawal had no effect (P>0.05) on laying performance, mortality rate, egg internal and external quality, but significantly affected (P<0.01) average feed intake, body weight, small and extra-large eggs percentages. Hens under ad libitum consumed more feed than hens under four hours and eight hours feed withdrawal. High body weight was observed on ad libitum fed hens, intermediate on eight hours feed withdrawn hens and lower at four hours feed withdrawn hens. High percentage of small graded eggs was observed on four hours feed withdrawn hens, intermediate on eight hours feed withdrawn hens and lower on ad libitum fed hens. High percentage of extra-large graded eggs was observed on ad libitum fed hens, intermediate on eight hours feed withdrawn hens and lower four hours feed withdrawn hens. Strain had a significant effect on average egg weight, median egg weight, albumen weight, extra-small, small, medium and large graded eggs percentages (P<0.01) and on body weight, egg height , egg width, average egg shell colour (P<0.05). Strain did not affect (P>0.05) average feed intake, body weight change, egg output, feed conversion ratio, mortality rate, egg shell breaking force, albumen height, yolk height, yolk weight, extra-large and jumbo graded eggs percentage. Brown Hy-Line layers had high average egg weight, median egg weight, egg height, egg width, and average egg shell colour and albumen weight than White Hy-Line layers. Small sized eggs percentage and body weight were high on White Hy-Line layers compared to Brown Hy-Line layers. Medium and large sized eggs were high on Brown Hy-Line layers than White Hy-Lines. Feed withdrawal by strain interaction effect was observed on body weight, average egg weight and median egg weight, albumen weight and egg height, percentage of small, medium and large graded eggs (P<0.05). Brown Hy-Line hens under eight hours feed withdrawal had high egg weight, median egg weight, egg height, albumen weight and under eight hours feed withdrawn White Hy-Line hens had lower albumen height compared to other interactions. In all interactions White Hy-Line had high percentage of small graded eggs whereas Brown Hy-line had high percentage of large and medium graded eggs.Item Open Access Effects of Orange (Citrus sinensis) Pulp-buffalo grass (Cenchruis cilliaris) silage on digestibility, growth performance and blood metabolites of windsnyer-type and large white x landrace crossed pigs(2019-05-18) Ramakatana, Joseph Glen Kgopong; Fushai, F.; Baloyi, J. J.; Kanengoni A. T.The study evaluated the nutritive value of orange pulp- buffalo grass (OPBG) silage as a po-tential pig feed. In experiment 1, OPBG was ensiled in 58 one-litre jars, split into Reno-zyme® enzymes (containing α-amylases and β-endo 1, 3; 1, 4 beta glucanase) (denoted OPBGE) and 18 without enzyme (denoted OPBG). Samples were collected from the lab on days 7, 15 and 30 in a three by two factorial design (period by treatment). In Experiment 2, 12 South African Windsnyer-type (SAWIP) (27.2±3.9 kg) and 12 Large White- Landrace crosses (LW x LR) (28±9.8 kg) were fed diets containing different levels of bulk-ensiled OPBG ad libitum for 30 days, in a 2 X 3 (breed by level of OPBG (control, low (15% OPBG) and high (30% OPBG))) factorial arrangement. The apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of the pigs was measured during week 3 of feeding. The average body gain ABG average daily feed intake (ADFI), average daily gain (ADG), average gain to feed ratio (AG: F) were measured weekly. Serum glucose (GLU) , blood urea nitrogen (BUN), creatinine (CREAT), cholesterol, (CHOL) and triglycerides (TG) were measured during week 4 of the experiment. The levels of CP, EE, NDF, water soluble carbohydrates (WSC), lactic acid (LA) and pH were different (P<0.05) for OPBGE and OPBG on day 7. However the OPBGE concentra-tions of DM, ASH, CP, NDF, HEMI, WSC, LA and pH were higher (P<0.05) compared to OPBG. The OPBGE was lower (P<0.05) on EE and ADF, compared to OPBG on day 7. The levels of DM, ASH, CP, NDF, ADF, HEMI, LA and WSC were different (P<0.05) for OPBGE and OPBG on day 30. However the OPBGE levels of DM, CP, NDF, ADF, LA and WSC were higher (P<0.05) compared to OPBG. ASH, EE and HEMI were lower (P<0.05) on day 30. There were significant diets x day interactions (P<0.05) for DM, ASH, CP, EE, NDF, ADF, HEMI, WSC, and LA, but not for pH. The aerobic stability study was inconclusive. The digestibility levels of OM and NDF were different (P<0.05) for LW x LR and SAWIP, where LW x LR ATTD on OM and NDF was higher (P<0.05) compared to SAWIP for all diets. The LW x LR ADG was higher (P<0.05) compared to SAWIP for all diets. There was a diet x breed interaction effect (P <0.05) on ADG whereby the BUN and CREAT were different (P <0.05) for LW x LR and SAWIP. The SAWIP BUN was higher (P<0.05), but the CREAT and TG were lower (P<0.05) compared to LW x LR for all diets fed. In conclusion, OPBG inclu-sion in pig feed enhanced the quality of feed, digestibility, performance and blood metabo-lites profile.
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