Theses and Dissertations

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Food security, academic performance and physical well-being amongst students at the University of Venda
(2026-05-19) Mathole, Mashaola First; Mandiwana, T. C.; Chauke,
Introduction: Food insecurity remains a significant concern amongst university students, contributing to poor nutrition, reduced academic performance, and compromised physical well-being. Understanding this relationship is crucial for enhancing student outcomes and reducing inequalities in higher education. Aim: This study investigated the relationship between food security, academic performance, and physical well-being amongst students at the University of Venda. Methodology: The study employed a cross-sectional, stratified random sampling design. A total of 319 students, aged 18–23 years, residing both on and off campus, participated in the study. Data were collected through a structured questionnaire. Descriptive statistics (frequencies and percentages) summarised the data, while correlation and p-values tested the relationships amongst variables. Results: Males 53% and females 47%. Approximately 40,4% of students experienced some level of food insecurity, with 6,3% experiencing moderate food insecurity and 0,9% experiencing severe food insecurity. Most students 72,7% reported being physically healthy, though fewer engaged in regular exercise or maintained balanced diets. Academically, 84,3% demonstrated high motivation, and 79,3% reported effective collaboration; however, 45,8% felt overwhelmed by their workload. Weak positive correlations were observed between food security and both academic performance (ρ = 0.18) and physical well-being (ρ = 0.043), while a moderate relationship existed between academic performance and physical well-being (ρ = 0.429). Conclusion: Food insecurity has a detrimental impact on students’ academic and health outcomes. Institutional interventions promoting nutrition support and wellness programmes are essential to enhance student success and overall well-being.
Open Access
The influence of water, sanitation and hygiene and feeding practices on growth status and antibiotic resistance in infants aged 0-6 months in Dzimauli rural villages
(2026-05-19) Ramalepe, Audrey Kgomotso; Nesamvuni, C. N.; Mahopo, T. C.; Masia, T. A.
Malnutrition and antibiotic resistance remain critical and interconnected public health challenges in low- and middle-income countries, particularly during early infancy. This study explored the influence of water, sanitation and hygiene practices and feeding practices on growth status and antibiotic resistance in infants aged 0-6 months in the Dzimauli rural villages, Limpopo Province, South Africa. A prospective cohort design was used, involving 156 mother-infant pairs who were followed monthly from birth to six months. Data were collected using structured questionnaires assessing socio-demographic characteristics, water, sanitation, and hygiene practices, and feeding practices, alongside monthly anthropometric measurements and stool sample analyses to determine antibiotic resistance patterns in Escherichia coli. Generalised estimating equations were used to examine associations between water, sanitation and hygiene practices and growth outcomes, while multivariable logistic regression identified factors associated with multidrug resistance. Ethical approval was obtained from relevant university committees and provincial authorities, and written informed consent was secured from all participants, with confidentiality maintained through coded data and secure storage. Results showed that exclusive breastfeeding practices declined sharply from 71.0% in month one to 2.0% by month six. Although most infants had normal growth indicators, progressive declines in length-for-age z-scores and weight-for-age z-scores were observed over time. After adjustment, the water, sanitation and hygiene practices were not significantly associated with growth outcomes, despite temporal growth faltering. High resistance to tetracycline and cefepime (70.9%) was observed, and multidrug resistance was detected in 23.6% of infants. No independent predictors of multidrug resistance were identified in adjusted models, partly due to limited sample size and sparse data. The study highlights the coexistence of growth faltering and early-life antibiotic resistance in rural settings and underscores the need for integrated interventions that strengthen water, sanitation and hygiene practices infrastructure, promote optimal infant feeding practices, and support antimicrobial stewardship to improve child health outcomes.
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Anthropometric status, dietary intake and uric acid levels in adults aged 40 to 60 years residing in Giyani Location of Greater Giyani Municipality in Mopani District, Limpopo Province
(2026-05-19) Shilubane, Fikela; Motadi, S. A.; Mahopo, T. C.
Background: Elevated serum uric acid levels (hyperuricemia) are influenced by several dietary and lifestyle factors, including high intake of sugar, alcohol, and purine-rich foods. Hyperuricemia is a major risk factor for gout, an inflammatory condition that has become increasingly prevalent in developing countries. Effective management of hyperuricemia often requires lifestyle modifications, with or without pharmacological intervention. Despite growing global concern, limited data exist on the dietary patterns, anthropometric status, and uric acid levels of adults in rural South African communities. The aim of this study was to assess the anthropometric status, dietary intake, and uric acid levels in adults aged 40 years and above residing in the Giyani location of Greater Giyani Municipality in Mopani District, Limpopo Province. Method: The study employed a cross-sectional design, with a quantitative research approach. A simple random sampling method was used to select the communities, while convenience sampling was employed to select the participants. The following variables were measured: socio-demographic characteristics, anthropometric status, dietary intake, serum uric acid level, and blood pressure. Data was collected using a researcher-administered questionnaire. The data were initially captured in Microsoft Excel and then exported to the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (IBM SPSS Statistics, Armonk, NY), version 29, for further analysis, including the biochemical measurements. Independent T-tests were used for comparison. Measures were implemented to ensure the validity and reliability of the instruments, and ethical standards were adhered to in order to protect the rights of the participants. The formula yielded 394 participants, and an additional 10% (39) was added to account for attrition. The total sample size was 433 participants. Results: Hyperuricemia was most prevalent among participants aged 40–44 years (40.4%) and 51–60 years (34.1%). A notably higher prevalence was observed in females (63.4%) compared to males (18.1%), emphasizing a significant sex-related difference that warrants further investigation into the determinants such as biological and sociocultural. Employed participants exhibited a higher prevalence (59.2%), as did those from larger households, particularly families with five members (52.3%). Elevated uric acid levels were found in 82% of participants. Of these, 20% were overweight and 73% were obese. Waist circumference was very high in 67%, high in 20%, and normal in 13%. Additionally, 57% had high blood pressure. Strong positive correlations were observed between BMI and uric acid (r = 0.6124), BMI and waist circumference (r = 0.6880), and systolic and diastolic blood pressure (r = 0.8772). Moderate correlations existed between waist circumference and uric acid (r = 0.4425), BMI and systolic (r = 0.3999), and BMI and diastolic pressure (r = 0.3845). Weak correlations were found between dietary diversity score and both uric acid (r = 0.0524) and BMI (r = 0.0527). Conclusion: This study investigated the anthropometric status, dietary intake, and uric acid levels among adults aged 40 and above in Giyani, Limpopo Province. The results showed a high prevalence of elevated uric acid levels, overweight and obesity, and very high waist circumference among participants. Most participants had low dietary diversity. Significant associations were found between hyperuricemia and body mass index, waist circumference, blood pressure, and lifestyle behaviours such as physical inactivity, poor sleep, and inadequate weight control. These findings align with existing literature linking hyperuricemia to metabolic syndrome, cardiovascular disease, and kidney disorders.
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Consumption of indigenous traditional foods and their contribution to nutrient intake among young women, between the ages of 18 and 25 in Makhado Municipality, Vhembe District, Limpopo Province, South Africa
(2026-05-19) Tlakula, Pumzele Portia; Mandiwana, T. C.; Mofokeng, K. R.; Mushaphi, L. F.
Background: Indigenous traditional foods have a major role in the diet of South Africans, however, there is a decline in the use and consumption of indigenous foods, leading to non-communicable diseases such as obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus, hypertension, and cardiovascular diseases, alongside persistent nutritional deficiencies such as iron deficiency anaemia and vitamin A deficiency. Aim: To investigate the consumption of indigenous traditional foods and their contribution to nutrient intake, among young women between the ages of 18 and 25, in Makhado Municipality, Vhembe District, Limpopo Province, South Africa. Methodology: A cross-sectional quantitative design was adopted for this study. Simple random sampling and systematic sampling designs were employed to recruit 306 young women aged 18 to 25 years of age, from various households of Makhado municipality. Data was collected using a structured questionnaire developed for this study, which was pre-tested (pilot tested) to ensure clarity, validity, and reliability. Necessary modifications were made following the pilot study. Data was analysed using SPSS version 29; continuous variables are presented as means and standard deviations (SD), while categorical variables are expressed as frequencies. Results: Tree hundred and six young women participated in the study. The results indicated that samp was the most available carbohydrate 80% (n= 244) at the household level. The median intake of both macro- and micronutrients among participants was markedly lower than the Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA). Protein intake was particularly low (2.9 g vs 46–56 g RDA), while essential minerals such as calcium, iron, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, and zinc were all consumed in amounts far below recommended levels. Similarly, vitamin intakes, including vitamins C, D, E, and K, were substantially inadequate. Overall, the findings indicate a widespread deficiency in nutrient intake among the study population. The median intake of total protein was considerably lower than the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA). Likewise, median intakes of key vitamins, including vitamin C, vitamin D, vitamin E, and vitamin K, were markedly below recommended levels. Nearly half 46.1% (n=141) of young women had a normal BMI, while 31.5% (n=96) were at risk of developing hypertension, and 15.7% (n=48) were at an increased risk of diabetes. The study findings exhibited the association between the BMI status of the young women and daily consumption of indigenous foods. Significant correlations were observed between the BMI status and the intake of cucumisesol (ρ = −0.210, p = 0.0002), curcubitapepol (ρ = −0.191, p = 0.0008), vigna subterranean (ρ = −0.179, p = 0.0017), watermelon (ρ = −0.155, p = 0.0065) and pumpkin dish (ρ = −0.129, p = 0.0244). Conclusion and recommendations: Indigenous traditional foods are widely recognized for their nutritional value and available at the household level in Makhado Municipality, however, their actual consumption among young women remains inadequate to meet recommended nutritional requirements. Targeted nutrition education initiatives are required to encourage the frequent consumption of indigenous foods, especially those high in micronutrients and protein. Furthermore, to increase dietary diversity and lower the risk of nutrition-related non-communicable diseases in young women, community-based programs and primary healthcare nutrition counseling should be reinforced. It is also advised that local food systems be supported and that indigenous foods be included in nutrition programs and initiatives.
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The perceptions of mothers or caregivers on the use of indigenous food for complementary feeding of infants from 6 to 12 months
(2026-05-19) Tshitamba, Thabelo; Mbhatsani, H, V,; Ramabulana-Mhlongo, A.
Complementary feeding remains an important factor in the infant’s nutritional status and begins at 6 to 12 months, with mothers or caregivers playing a significant role. The age range of 6 to 12 months is crucial for the child’s growth and development as new and solid foods are introduced. The types of food given to the child for complementary feeding depend heavily on mothers' and caregivers' perceptions of various foods. This research used a qualitative approach and exploratory design to explore the perceptions of mothers and caregivers on the use of indigenous foods for complementary feeding of infants from 6 to 12 months and to identify the types and availability of food which are used. Non-probability snowball sampling was used to recruit participants in the study village. The target population was mothers and caregivers, and data was collected from 17 mothers from the households of Waterval village, located in the Hlanganani district in Limpopo, South Africa. Data was analysed using the thematic analysis steps (Transcription, Checking and editing, Analysis and interpretation, Generalisation, and Verification), and the results showed that participants obtain indigenous food through growing them, as weeds from the backyards and by purchasing them from the local markets, and they use some of these indigenous foods for complementary feeding. The types of indigenous foods used for complementary feeding depend on the age and developmental stage of infants from 6 to 8 months. Most mothers and caregivers expressed a strong positive perception of the use of indigenous foods for complementary feeding, as evidenced by their knowledge of their benefits. The identified benefits included good health, cost-effectiveness, ease of preparation, and possible therapeutic effects for some common infant conditions.
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Biomarkers of environmental enteric dysfunction and growth status in infants aged 3–9 months in Thulamela Municipality, Limpopo Province, in South Africa
(2026-05-19) Mudau, Zwivhuya Patience; Mushaphi, L. F.; Mabapa, N. S.
Background Stunting is the most prevalent form of chronic undernutrition affecting over 165 million children under five years of age globally (WHO, 2006). In 2017, an estimated 1 in every 4 (23%) children aged < 5 years were stunted worldwide (Budge et al., 2019). The study aims to assess biomarkers of environmental enteric dysfunction and growth status in infants aged 3–9 months. Methodology A quantitative cross-sectional study was conducted among 396 infants aged 3–9 months residing in the Thulamela Municipality. Simple random sampling was used to select six clinics per cluster, for a total of 36 clinics. Convenience sampling was used to select 396 infants aged 3–9 months. A researcher-administered questionnaire was used to gather socio-demographic and anthropometric data from the infants. The questionnaire consisted of three sections, namely, section A: which solicited socio-demographic information such as age of infants, birth weight, birth length and immunisation, which was collected from the Road to Health Booklet, section B: where feeding practices information was collected and section C: Record sheet, where anthropometric measurements and blood samples collection were recorded. A phlebotomist collected blood samples from the infants to determine haemoglobin (Hb), ferritin, soluble transferrin receptor (sTfR), retinol-binding protein (RBP-4), thyroglobulin (Tg), C-reactive protein (CRP), and alpha-1-acid glycoprotein (AGP). IBM Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 26 was used to analyse the data. Blood samples were analysed at a specialised human lab at Northwest University (NWU). Data was checked for normality using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. Data distributed normally were presented as means with standard deviations (SD), while non-normally distributed data were presented as median values with interquartile ranges (IQRs). Categorical data were presented as frequencies. Results More than half (50.7%) of mothers knew about breastfeeding, and they mentioned health workers as their source of information. More than half of the mothers had grades 11-12, almost a quarter had tertiary education. More than three-quarters (76.4%) of mothers-initiated breastfeeding immediately after delivery. More than half (50.7%) of the mothers introduced their infants to solid foods at 4–6 months of age. More than a quarter (30.7%) of mothers cited “infant is crying a lot” as a reason for introducing solid foods and fluids. More than a quarter (38.2%) of the mothers fed their infants breast milk and maize meal soft porridge. Majority of infants (96.4%) had sufficient vitamin A. More than a quarter (30.1%) of infants were stunted, 22.2% were underweight while 10.7% of infants were overweight. The majority (68.5%) of infants had low IGF-1 levels, while only 30% had normal levels. About 73.1% of the infants had high FGF-21 levels, 3.6% had normal levels, and only 23.4% had low levels. majority of infants (73.1%) had high IFABP levels, 3.6% had normal levels, and only 23.4% had low levels. About 47.2% of the infants had low CD-14 concentrations, 42.1% had normal concentrations, and 10.7% had high concentrations. Conclusion The results of the study show that mothers have breastfeeding knowledge however complementary feeding knowledge appears to be lacking. The growth status of infants is generally good however, stunting (16.7%) and wasting (5.1%) was observed. The education level of mothers may have contributed to the low prevalence of stunting and wasting. It is concluded that infants in Thulamela have anaemia (84.4% combined). There is good reason for concern about the risks of anaemia. Iron deficiency (ID) as indicated by ferritin and soluble transferrin receptor (sTfR) show that Iron deficiency (ID) exists in infants of Thulamela. The Tg results show that half of the infants had insufficient iodine, and this is a concern given consequences of iodine deficiency. The study results also indicate a growth hormone deficiency, as evidenced by low IGF-1 levels which may hinder linear growth, impair cognitive development, and weaken immune responses to pathogen exposure. The findings also show elevated FGF-21 levels which are associated with an increased risk of growth faltering, particularly during nutritional supplementation. The results of the study show elevated IFABP levels, indicating a compromised gut barrier and associated with poor nutritional status and a higher risk of malnutrition. The study reveals that fewer than 25% of infants showed elevated plasma CD14 levels, which are linked to inadequate nutrition, obesity, and inflammation. This study observed obesity and overweight, suggesting that increased CD14 levels may stem from these conditions in infants.
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Formulation and nutrient composition of ready-to-use therapeutic food with Glycine max, Vigna subterranea, Sorghum bicolor and Moringa oleifera leaf as micronutrient premix
(2025-09-05) Akinmoladun, Oluwaseun Funmi; Nesamvuni, C. N.; Jideani, V. A.
The growing population number of malnourished under-five children across the globe requires immediate nutritional intervention. The standard peanut- and milk-based ready-to-use therapeutic food (RUTF) commonly deployed for managing severe acute malnutrition is expensive and not easily accessible in the rural areas where it is needed most. However, this intervention should be cheap, readily accessible, nutritionally dense, have an extended shelf life, and not require further preparation. Therefore, the study aimed to formulate and profile the nutritional content of a ready-to-use therapeutic food with Glycine max, Vigna subterranea, Sorghum bicolor, and Moringa oleifera (MO) leaf powder as a micronutrient premix. The objectives were firstly to develop a ready-to-use therapeutic food from local base ingredients, including Sorghum, Bambara groundnut, soybean, and Moringa oleifera leaf powdered (MOLP) micronutrient premix with the aid of linear programming (LP) tool. Secondly, the study investigated the acceptability of the developed RUTFs, including colour (L*, a*, b*, H*, C*) measurements and focus group discussion by mothers and caregivers. It also evaluated the nutritional profile, including the proximate, antinutrient, minerals, and microbial assessment of the newly developed and/or formulated RUTFs, as the third objective. The final objective assessed the in vitro digestibility, including protein, starch, and amino acid profile of the formulated RUTFs. In the first objective, six RUTFs, based on different combinations of each of the base ingredients, were generated by LP: soybean (11.73%, 14.25%, 20%, 25.34%, 22.88%, 20%), Sorghum (29.11%, 28.93%, 24.35%, 15%, 15%, 21.66%), Bambara groundnut (15%, 10%, 10%, 10%, 15%, 15%), vegetable oil (27.11%, 26.82%, 25.64%, 26.66%, 27.12%, 25.34%) and sugar (17%, 20%, 20%, 23%, 20%, 18%). Eighteen RUTFs were produced, where each RUTF was composited with the three levels of micronutrient premix (3% MOLP alone, 3% standard RUTF alone, and a mixture of MOLP and standard RUTF at 1.5% each). Following proximate analysis, eight of the eighteen RUTFs met the minimum requirements for protein (14-16%) and energy (520-550 kcal) and were selected for pre-sensory analysis. Based on the overall acceptability score from the pre-sensory trial, five (RUTFs 1,2,3,4 and 5) of the eight RUTFs were rated higher and selected for further analysis and of nutrient composition in subsequent chapters. In objective two, the sensory analysis revealed that RUTFs 3 and 4 were highest (p<0.05) in appearance and aroma, while RUTFs 2 and 4 were highest (p<0.05) in taste and texture. The colour attributes revealed L*, a* and b* to be highest (p<0.05) in RUTF 3 and decrease through RUTFs 4 and 5 to RUTFs 1 and 2. Some of the comments by the caregivers and nursing mothers involved in the acceptability trial include, 'I would buy it if it were affordable, and I do not have a problem with the colour; after all, we all eat vegetables'. Regarding their RUTF knowledge, the comment was, 'They are used for children who are not well nourished, especially underweight'. In chapter five, the proximate analysis revealed that all the RUTFs have similar moisture and fibre content. While RUTFs 1,2,3 and 5 had identical crude protein and energy, RUTF 5 had the highest (p<0.05) crude fat. RUTF 3 had the highest (p<0.05) in most macro and micro minerals. This was closely followed by RUTFs 5,4,1 and 2. While aflatoxin remains undetected in all the RUTFs, RUTFs 3 and 4 had a much higher (p<0.05) phytate and trypsin than other RUTFs. The microbial assessment revealed 'no growth' for mould, E. coli, and Staphylococcus aureus, while 'absent' was reported for Listeria monocytogenes. Other microbial loads had <10 counts. In the final objective, the predicted that glycaemic index was similar for the five RUTFs. However, RUTFs 2 and 4 had the highest (p<0.05) but similar hydrolysis index and in vitro protein digestibility. The total essential amino acids were similar in RUTFs 1,3 and 5. The study showed that LP can be used to develop ready-to-use therapeutic food with a nutritional composition comparable to the WHO standard RUTF. Based on the ease of acceptability and mineral profile, RUTF 3, formulated with standard RUTF, seems the best. Closely followed are either RUTF 4 or 5. In conclusion, even though these RUTFs are yet to be clinically tested, developing a ready-to-use therapeutic food from Sorghum, Bambara groundnut, and soybean with MOLP could provide easily accessible but nutrient-dense nutrition therapy for managing severe acute malnutrition in children under five. Ethics were considered for the acceptability study. The University of Venda Research Ethics Committee granted certification.
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Menu availability, food handling practices and nutrition knowledge of food handlers in the Early Childhood Development centres at Elias Motsoaledi Local Municipality, Limpopo Province
(2025-09-05) Mphagi, Thabelo Winnie; Mushaphi, L. F.; Chauke, R. C.
Background: Nutrition is important for children's growth and development because it provides the essential components needed for physical growth, brain function, and mental development. Aim of the study: The aim of the study was to determine the food handlers' nutrition knowledge, food handling practices, and daily menu availability in Early Childhood Development centres at Elias Motsoaledi Local Municipality, Sekhukhune District. Methodology: A quantitative cross-sectional survey was conducted at Sekhukhune District, in Elias Motsoaledi Municipality. The convenience sampling method was used to select the population, which comprised of 60 registered and funded ECD centres, and 113 food handlers. A researcher-administered questionnaire and researcher-observation checklist were used to collect data. Data collected was analysed using SPSS software version 29. Results: The study was conducted in 60 registered and funded ECD centres at Sekhukhune District, Elias Motsoaledi Local Municipality, with 113 food handlers. The majority of respondents (70.8%) had completed secondary education and 17.7% had tertiary qualifications. About 72.6% of food handlers scored 80 to 100%, indicating excellent knowledge. Almost all food handlers (96.7%) washed their hands before handling food and after using the toilet, while 86.7% washed their hands with soap before eating. The majority of food handlers wear appropriate protective clothing and cover their hair when preparing food. All ECD centres had a daily menu and (91.2%) were approved by the dieticians, while (8.8%) were not approved. Most ECD centres (76.7%) had their menu displayed on the wall, but the majority of centres (68.3%) did not adhere to their daily menu. Conclusion: ECD centres should collaborate with nutrition experts during menu planning to ensure that they incorporate accessible and affordable nutritious foods into their daily meals. To enhance children's intake of essential vitamins and minerals, centres are encouraged to establish gardens where they can grow vegetables. This initiative can also help save money for other necessities.
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Complementary feeding education programme for caregivers of infants aged 3-12 months in Polokwane Municipality, Limpopo Province
(2025-09-05) Makwela, Maishataba Solomon; Mushaphi, L. F.; Makhado, L.
Background The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends exclusive breastfeeding for the first six months, with the introduction of Complementary feeding (CF) and continued breastfeeding for two years or beyond. The importance of exclusive breastfeeding and a smooth transition to balanced and informed complementary feeding has been reported. However, there remains a gap in knowledge regarding whether this information is practiced at the caregiver level. An appropriate complementary feeding has the potential to improve growth and development in infants from six months to two years of age. Purpose: This study aimed to develop and implement a complementary feeding education programme for caregivers with infants aged 312 months in Polokwane Municipality, Limpopo Province. Methods A non-randomized, quasi-experimental intervention study was conducted with 187 caregivers at baseline, with 150 completing the study. Initially, the intervention group comprised 95 caregiver-infant pairs, whereas the control group included 94. Post-intervention, 77 caregiver–infant pairs in the intervention group received complementary feeding education and six months of follow-up support from a dietitian researcher, whereas 71 pairs in the control group did not receive any intervention. Data were gathered from caregivers’ households at baseline and postintervention using a pretested, structured questionnaire to ensure consistency across both time points. Statistical analysis was performed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 29 for descriptive and inferential statistics. Spearman’s correlation was utilized to measure the strength and direction of monotonic association between variables, whereas chi-square tests were conducted to analyse relationships between variables. The effectiveness of the intervention was evaluated using difference‒in‒differences analysis, which compared changes in anthropometric measurements between the intervention and control groups. A significance level of p < 0.05 was applied. The study adhered to fundamental ethical research principles, including confidentiality, beneficence, privacy, and minimizing bias. Ethical clearance was obtained from the University of Venda, and necessary permissions were secured from relevant gatekeepers. Results There were no significant differences between the groups regarding sex, marital status, education level, occupation, housing type, or water source. Most caregivers were female and unmarried, with similar employment and housing conditions. Water scarcity was a concern in both groups, particularly the experimental group. A significant difference was observed in food availability, with nearly 70% of the control group reporting food insecurity (p=0.002). Waste disposal also varied, as more caregivers in the experimental group discarded rubbish in their yards (p=0.048). While most births were through normal delivery, the experimental group had a significantly higher rate of caesarean section (35%) than the control group (p=0.007). The mean(±SD.) age of the infants was 4.4 (±1.1) months in the intervention group and 5.5 (±0.2) months in the control group. At baseline, the mean (±S.D.) of infant weight was 7.37 (±0.83) Kg in the intervention group and 6.69 (±0.13) kg in the control group. The average (±S.D.) length was 61.00 (±0.53) cm for the intervention group and 62.30 (±0.79) cm for the control group. Of 198 participants, 77 in the intervention group and 71 in the control group completed the study. A significant weight increase was observed in the intervention group (DID mean = 1.82 kg, p<0.001), along with a notable length gain (DID mean = 7.78 cm, p<0.01) from baseline. Additionally, the intervention group presented a significant increase in Mid-Upper-Arm Circumference (MUAC) by 1.68 cm (p=0.0465). However, the intervention had a minimal effect on head circumference, with a negligible difference (DID=0.16 cm; p=0.95). At baseline, the mean knowledge score was 29.70±0.83 in the control group and 25.10±0.97 in the intervention group. By the end of the study, the control group's mean score remained at 25.0±0.99, whereas the intervention group’s score significantly improved to 38.10±0.31. Caregivers also demonstrated improvements in key complementary feeding practices. Conclusion A community-based nutrition intervention programme implemented through demonstrations can significantly enhance caregivers' knowledge and practices related to complementary feeding while improving the anthropometric nutritional status of children aged three months to one year.
Open Access
Nutritional status and milestone development of children aged 3 to 5 years attending early childhood development centres at Chief Albert Luthuli Municipality
(2024-09-06) Khumalo, Mthokozisi; Mushaphi, L. F.; Mahopo, T. C.; Mbhatsani, H. V.
Introduction: Nutritional status is vital for overall health and development in children. Anthropometry, reflecting health and nutritional status, predicts performance and survival. Children's development follows unique trajectories, with specific milestones achieved universally. This study explores the nutritional status and milestone development of preschoolers. Methods: A cross-sectional design was employed, clustering the Chief Albert Luthuli municipality into four circuits. Four Early Childhood Development (ECD) centers were randomly chosen from each cluster. Utilising Slovin’s formula, the sample size was determined, resulting in 353 participants. Participants were children attending ECD centers, while caregivers and ECD teachers were informants. Data were collected via a questionnaire and three 24-hour recalls assessing dietary diversity. Anthropometric measurements were taken using standard techniques, and developmental screening was conducted using the Developmental Assessment of Young Children-Second Edition (DAYC-2). Inferential statistics determined associations between nutritional status and milestone development. Results: Regarding household characteristics, the study found varying levels of access to resources such as land for food production and improved water sources. Notably, most households relied on electricity (94%) for cooking, while a portion of households still used wood (62%) as the primary cooking fuel, which has implications for indoor air quality and environmental sustainability. Across three visits, most children exhibited high dietary diversity scores (DDS) (63-77%). Commonly consumed food groups included meat and fish (72-78%), milk and dairy products (68-73%), with organ meat (5-8%) and eggs (6-13%) less frequent. The prevalence of stunting, underweight, and wasting varied, with stunting at 17.9%, underweight at 19.9%, and wasting at 23.2%. Approximately 8% showed suspected developmental delays, notably in physical fine motor skills (27%). Positive correlations were found between weight-for-height (wasting) and general development index (GDI) (p=0.00) as well as between DDS and GDI (p=0.00). Conclusion: The prevalence of malnutrition varied, with wasting being notably high. Physical fine motor skills showed lower scores in a significant proportion of children. However, most children met the expected milestones across developmental domains. Significant associations were observed between anthropometric indicators, DDS, and milestone development. These findings underscore the importance of addressing nutritional status and milestone development in preschool-aged children for their overall well-being and development.
Open Access
The effect of consuming instant-maize porridge fortified With Termites and Moringa Oleifera Leaf powders on the nutritional status of children aged three to five years old in Thulamela Municipality, South Africa (RCT)
(2023-05-19) Netshiheni, Khavhatondwi Rinah; Nesamvuni, C. N.; Mushaphi, L. F.
This chapter introduces the topic of the study, giving relevant background and highlighting the problem statement. It ends with the study's hypothesis, aim, specific objectives, significance, and conceptual framework. Malnutrition is the cause of deaths of eight million children under five years worldwide. Undernutrition is the leading cause of over one-third of children's deaths, mainly from pneumonia and diarrhoea. Additionally, in 2015, zinc deficiency and anaemia prevalence in the Vhembe District preschool children in Limpopo Province was 42.6% and 28%, respectively. This study investigated the effect of consuming instant-maize porridge fortified with termite and Moringa oleifera leaf powders on the nutritional status of children aged three to five years old. The research method used was quantitative. The study was conducted in Thulamela Municipality, one of the four municipalities in the Vhembe District. A randomised controlled trial was used, whereby participants were randomly assigned into either an experimental or control group. Twenty children from six preschools (three for the control and three for the experimental groups) participated in the study. The study was conducted in four phases, namely, Phase 1: the preparation of fortified instant-maize porridge and the assessment of safety and nutrient content of the product; Phase 2: a baseline study was done; Phase 3: participants were assigned to experimental and control groups. The consumption of 100% instant-maize porridge by the control group and fortified (80% maize, 15% termite powder and 5% Moringa oleifera powder) maize porridge by the experimental group for six months was done and Phase 4: post-intervention data collection and comparison of Phases 2 to 4 were made. The samples were prepared at the Department of Food Science & Technology at the University of Venda. Ethical certification was sought from the University of Venda Research Ethics Committee to conduct the study.
Open Access
Dietary salt intake, dietary practices and hypertensive status among pregnant women in Thulamela municipality
(2022-07-15) Munyai, Tshifhiwa Elphas; Mushaphi, L. F.; Mbhatsani, H. V.; De Villiers, A.
Salt intake in South Africa is beyond the 4 to 6g/day as recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO); no doubt, this is due to a high-salt diet. It is well known that high-salt diets are related to hypertension, which is the most prevalent maternal complication worldwide, and is associated with significant morbidity and mortality of the mother and foetus. Pre-eclampsia and eclampsia are the two hypertensive disorders of pregnancy; these are considered as the main causes of maternal and perinatal morbidity and mortality. High maternal deaths have been recorded in South Africa where eclampsia was the direct cause. The aim of this study was to describe dietary salt intake, dietary practices and hypertensive status among pregnant women in Thulamela Municipality (Limpopo Province). The study adopted a quantitative cross-sectional survey design where three local areas were purposively selected. Two clinics from each local area were randomly selected to give a total of three Community Health Centres (CHC) and six clinics. Pregnant women were selected by means of convenience sampling. The sample size was calculated using Slovin’s formula which resulted in a total number of 379 pregnant women. Data obtained were captured using Microsoft Excel 2016 and exported to the IBM Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 26 for analysis. The dietary intake was analysed using Medical Research Council of South Africa (SAMRC) Food Finder 3 (version 1.1.3) computer software. Logistic regression was used to identify factors associated with high Blood Pressure risk. Most of the participants (62.0%) were single and had passed Grade 12; majority of participants (88.1%) were unemployed and depended on parents/parents-in-law and social grant. At the time of the study, 38.3% of participants’ gestational age was 31 to 38 weeks. Analyses of the macronutrient intake by the pregnant women indicated that the mean energy intake was 5304.4±2217.5KJ per day and the mean protein intake was 35.1±16.8g per day. Majority of participants (81.0%) had received nutrition education and they usually ate three meals or more per day. Most participants (71%) indicated that they bought salt from supermarkets and added salt when cooking. Almost all the pregnant women (99.7%) were below the EAR reference values for iron while 15.0% of pregnant women were within the Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) reference value for folate intake. The study revealed that the mean diastolic pressure was 73.56±9.5mmHg and systolic pressure was 113±11.2mmHg. The majority of these pregnant women were at low risk of developing high BP. High BP risk was not associated with marital Page v of 141 status, however, there was a significant association with the educational level. Gestational age was significantly associated (p<0.05) with having a HBP risk, with those 38+ weeks having the highest risk. The study concluded that pregnant women were not meeting their daily nutrient intake, hence, there is a need to advocate for improved nutrient intake. There is also a need for other research projects to be conducted on dietary salt intake and dietary practices of pregnant women in the Thulamela Municipality.
Open Access
Nutritional practices and health status of health care workers in Makhado Municipality of Limpopo Province, South Africa
(2022-07-15) Masala, Itani Faith; Mushaphi, L. F.; Masia, T. A.
Background: Health care workers spend 80% of their time daily at work and workplaces are sedentary settings for many workers. Energy-dense food and beverages are commonly consumed, resulting in increased overweight and obesity, which are health-risk factors, especially for non-communicable diseases. The study aimed to describe the nutritional practices and health status of health care workers in the Makhado municipality. Methodology: Cross-sectional survey design using a quantitative research method was applied. Study participants were health care workers who were registered with professional boards and working in the health facilities at the Makhado municipality. A total of 336 health care workers were randomly selected from 25 health care facilities across the municipality. Data were analysed by description and inferential statistics using version 2020 of the statistical package for social sciences. Results: The current study indicates that 62% of total participants was obese, 26% was overweight, 18.2% had body fat percentage in the overweight range and a total of 67.6% of participants had a total body fat percentage in the obese range. More than two-thirds (at 72%) of total participants had waist circumference above normal. Biochemically, there were disorders of blood glucose, total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein and high-density lipoprotein among participants. The majority of female participants and 45% of male participants prepared their meals and they usually ate home-prepared breakfast and lunch while at work. About 60% of participants in both groups ate three meals a day, and 34% of male and 27% of female participants ate food from takeaway restaurants once a week. Above half (at 54.1%) of female participants and 39% of male participants had very good lifestyle habits. The majority of participants in both groups had fair and poor nutritional knowledge (with male = 80.7%, female = 83.6%). Conclusion: The majority of participants had acceptable nutritional practices, except 30.1% of participants who skipped meals. Health status is of high concern because very few of the total participants had normal weight. The majority of participants had abdominal obesity and there were participants with disorders in biochemical and clinical parameters.
Open Access
Nutritional status and feeding practices of children aged 0 to 36 months in Thulamela Municipality, Limpopo Province
(2022-07-15) Mugware, Anzani; Mushaphi, L. F.; Motadi, S. A.
Introduction: Globally, it is estimated that only 44% of infants are exclusively breastfed for the first 6 months of life while most children are introduced to solid, semi-solid or soft foods late or earlier than recommended. Poor breastfeeding practices, and complementary feeding accounts for nutrients deficiency, illness and infections in children that lead to malnutrition at an early age. Globally, malnutrition is accountable for one out of three deaths among children under five years (WHO, 2016). Aim: The study aimed to investigate the nutritional status and feeding practices of children aged 0 to 36 months at the Thulamela Municipality. Methodology: A cross-sectional study design was used in this study. The target population was all mothers with children aged 0 to 36 months in the Vhembe district and the accessible population was mothers with children aged 0 to 36 months in the Thulamela Municipality. Simple random sampling was used to select three clinics per cluster to make a total of 18 clinics. A total number of 250 mothers and their children were selected using a convenience sampling technique. A structured questionnaire was used to collect data on socio-demographic characteristics, breastfeeding and complementary feeding practices. Anthropometric and biochemical measurements of children were assessed using standard procedure. Anthropometric measurements were calculated using WHO Anthro version 3.2.2. The data obtained were analysed using SPSS version 26. Results: The study was carried out on 250 children aged 0 to 36 months and their mothers. The mean (± SD) age of children in months was 10.53 (8.39). The mean (± SD) age of mothers in years was 27.79 (±7.13SD). Most mothers (96%) initiated breastfeeding within one hour after birth. Exclusive breastfeeding up to six months was practised by only 7.6% of mothers. The majority (87.5%) were complementary feeding before the age of six months. The prevalence of stunting, wasting and underweight were 9.2%, 2% and 3.6% respectively. The prevalence of vitamin A among children was 21.7% (<10 μg/dl). The prevalence of anaemia (Hb <11 g/dL), and iron deficiency (serum ferritin < 12 μg/l) amongst children was 53.6% and 13.1% respectively. About 38.1% of children who received water before six months of age were more likely to be stunted as compared to those who received water at six months and above (19.9%) (p=0.001). Children who were still breastfeeding were more likely to have normal haemoglobin (73.5%) as v compared to those who were no longer breastfeed (61.5%) (p=0.45). Children who were given complementary foods one week after birth, the odds of being underweight were 9.00 times as compared to those who were given complementary foods after six months (OR=9.00; 95% CI=1.325 - 61.138). Children who were initiated on breastfeeding immediately after delivery, the odds of having low ferritin were 0.11 times as compared to those who were initiated breastfeeding a day after delivery (OR=0.111; 95% CI=0.015 - 0.812. Conclusion: Exclusively breastfeeding for the first six months was rarely practiced since the majority of infants were introduced to complementary fluids or foods before the age of six months. The prevalence of underweight, stunting and wasting among children were of low concern since the majority of children had normal anthropometric status. The prevalence of vitamin A deficiency, anaemia and iron deficiency remains prevalent among children. Health professionals should promote the use of mass media and mom-connect as the platforms that may be utilised more optimally to disseminate information on infant and young child feeding practices to young mothers.
Open Access
Nutritional composition of traditional mixed - dishes eaten by elderly women in Vhembe District
(2020-12-20) Tshidzumba, Sedzani Elsie; Mushaphi, L. F.; Mbhatsani, H. V.
Globally, one in every eight people (868 million) are malnourished and nearly two billion people suffer from some type of micronutrient deficiencies. Most traditional dishes contain exceptional capabilities to improve nutrition, bring about nutritional variety, hence, they play a significant role in reducing malnutrition, including micronutrient deficiencies sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) and South Africa in particular, where these ills still persist. The conveyance and documentation of indigenous knowledge on traditional food, which this research is aimed at, will make sure that the obtainability and consumption of these foods will be sustained. The aim of this study was to determine the nutritional composition of traditional mixed-dishes eaten by elderly women in Vhembe District. The research design was ethnographic with an analytic component; a mixed methods approach was used for data collection. The qualitative data was analysed using thematic analysis and the quantitative data was analysed using statistical methods on IMB-SPSS (version 26). Frequencies, mean, and analysis of variance (ANOVA) were used to interpret data and means were separated using Duncan’s multiple range test at p < 0.05. The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. From the results, one theme and eight sub-themes emerged from the respondents’ narratives during the in-depth interviews. Sixteen types of stiff porridge, eight types of traditional mixed-dishes and twenty-three types of indigenous leafy vegetables were documented. Boiling was the most common traditional cooking method used in food preparation by the Vhavenda and Vatsonga. The Vhavenda and Vatsonga frequently used ground peanuts in the preparation of most traditional foods. The total dietary fibre values ranged from 7.70% to 28.40% and a significantly higher total dietary fibre content was observed in tshidzimba/tihove B at p <0.05. The protein content of traditional mixed dishes varied from 11.70% to 31.50% and a relatively higher protein content was observed in bovhola/xipaswi at p <0.05. The iron content varied from 51.4 mg/100 g to 195.6 mg/100 g significantly different at (p<0.5). Thophi/tshopi had higher vitamin A (288.0 μg/100 g) and β-carotene (576.0 μg/100 g) content, respectively. Sensory evaluation showed that tshidzimba/tihove A was rated significantly higher in mouthfeel, aroma, taste and appearance and overall acceptability than tshidzimba/tihove B, thophi/tshopi and bovhola/xipaswi at p < 0.05. The conclusion is that, there is a great reliance on traditional foods by rural communities. Mixing traditional foods into composite dishes is a common practice among the Vhavenda and Vatsonga. These foods are inexpensive sources of important nutrients and their consumption must be encouraged, especially in local communities where they are readily available to prevent and lessen the burden of micronutrient deficiencies, thereby, promoting healthy lifestyle.
Open Access
Prevalence and determinants of obesity among adolescents in Vhembe district Municipality, Limpopo Province
(2021-06-23) Baloyi, Brenda; Mushaphi, L. F.; Mabapa, N. S.
Introduction: Globally obesity amongst adolescents is becoming one of the most challenging public health concerns. Prevalence of obesity among children and adolescent has dramatically increased in recent years in both developed and developing countries. Aim: The aim of the study was to determine the prevalence and determinants of obesity among adolescents in Vhembe district. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted in 377 adolescents aged 13-20years. The following measurements were carried out: anthropometric measurements, dietary assessment, biochemical measurements, blood pressure and physical activity level. A questionnaire was used to collect demographic information and dietary intake. Data were expressed as means and standard deviations. The statistical package for social sciences version 26 was used to analyse data. Binary logistics regression analysis was used to determine odds ratio (OR). A p-value of <0.05 was considered significant. Results: The prevalence of obesity was high in females (20.3%) as compared to males (6%). Determinants of obesity in this study included gender, age, source of income, SBP, cholesterol and nutrients intake. Among male participants BMI was significantly associated with SBP (r=0.281, p=0.00), WC (r=0.661, p=0.00) and TC (r=0.223, P0.06). In female participants BMI was significantly associated with SBP (r=0.242, p=0.00), DBP (r=0.157, p=0.18) and TRIG (r=0.158 p=0.01) and negatively associated with HDL (-0.178, p=0.07). There was a high intake of macronutrients and low intake of micronutrients among adolescents in the current study. Most (males=30.7% vs females=60.8%) of adolescents had low physical activity indexes and living a sedentary lifestyle. Conclusion: The results of the study suggest a double burden and trend of undernutrition and overnutrition.
Open Access
Iodine status of lactating mothers and infants aged 0 to 6 months in Vhembe and Mopani district of the Limpopo Province, South Africa
(2020-09-03) Hlako, Seemole Cedrick; Mushaphi, L. F.; Mabapha, N. S.
Introduction: Iodine is an essential nutrient required by humans for the synthesis of thyroid hormones, which are vital for normal growth and development. Objective: The primary aim of the study was to describe the iodine status of lactating mothers and infants aged from 0 to 6 months in the Vhembe and Mopani Districts. Methods: A cross-sectional study conducted on 246 infant-mother pair, from the Mopani and the Vhembe Districts. Data was gathered using a questionnaire. Breastmilk, mother urine, infant urine, household salt and drinking water were collected to be analysed for iodine content. Results: The median of breastmilk iodine concentration level amongst lactating mothers in the Vhembe District was 101.4 µg/l (IQR 62.9 – 175.1 µg/l) and 154.4 µg/l (IQR 92.6 – 211.8 µg/L) in Mopani. The median UIC of mothers in Vhembe was 98.5 (IQR 57.66 – 153.93), whereas in the Mopani District the median UIC of mothers was 126.08 µg/l (IQR 69.89 – 206.71 µg/L). The median UIC of infants in Vhembe was 220 (IQR 106.67 – 418.43 µg/l) and in the Mopani District was 321.94 µg/l (IQR 167.96 – 482.66 µg/l). Conclusion: The BMIC in the study signifies iodine sufficiency in both the Vhembe and the Mopani Districts. The results of this study suggest that the BMIC be included in studies assessing iodine status in lactating mothers since the UIC only reflects iodine that was consumed recently. The UIC may under estimate the maternal iodine status if it is not complemented by the BMIC data.
Open Access
Iodine content of salt used in the National School Nutrition Programme at Mopani and Vhembe Districts in Limpopo Province, South Africa
(2020-09-09) Ramugondo, Mpho; Mushaphi, L. F.; Mabapa, N. S.
Background: The National School Nutrition Programme (NSNP) aims to foster better quality education by enhancing children’s learning capacity, encouraging regular attendance and punctuality, addressing micronutrient deficiencies and alleviating short term hunger. Iodine is one of the micronutrient which is used in NSNP in the form of iodised salt. Iodine deficieny affects an estimated 60 million school- age children in the developing world and is also associated with low test scores and cognitive function. Aim: The main aim of the study was to determine the iodine content of salt used in the NSNP. Methodology: A cross sectional study was conducted. The researcher aimed at describing the iodine content of salt used in schools and the iodine nutrition knowledge of the food handlers in various schools in the Mopani and Vhembe districts. The study was conducted in selected schools of Mopani and Vhembe districts receiving NSNP. The target population was food handlers employed in schools receiving NSNP from the two districts. A total of 318 schools were visited and 359 food handlers were interviewed. The salt samples were collected and analysed using standard procedures. The demographic information and the iodine nutrition knowledge were obtained using a validated questionnaire. Results: A total of 318 salt samples (Mopani=159 and Vhembe=159) were collected and analysed, representing 100% of successfully analysed. The study comprised of 359 (Mopani=200 and Vhembe=159) food handlers from two districts. Almost two thirds (64%) of the participants in Mopani district and 82.4% in Vhembe district had grades 8-12 as their highest level of education, while 4% and 5% had tertiary education in Mopani and Vhembe districts respectively. The mean iodine content was 36.53ppm and 34.24ppm in Mopani and Vhembe districts respectively which signifies adequately iodised salt. Almost three quarters (71%) of salt samples in Mopani and 65% in Vhembe were adequately (15-64ppm) iodised in this study. The results of the study suggest that almost half (47.5%) of the participants in Mopani and 34% in Vhembe had poor iodine nutrition knowledge as they could not answer the questions in the knowledge test correctly. Only 27% of the participants in Mopani and 30% in Vhembe had good knowledge. Conclusions- There are still salt samples that are inadequately iodised or not iodised at all used in the preparation of meals for NSNP in the two districts. Such instances make the programme designed to eliminate IDD fail. It can be deduced that without public awareness on the importance of iodine in the human body, the universal iodine programme will be unsuccessful.
Open Access
The nutritional knowledge and consumption of blackjack by hypertensive patients in Vhembe District, Limpopo Province, South Africa
(2019-09-20) Gavhi, Fhatuwani; Nesamvuni, C. N.; Mbhatsani, H. V.
Hypertension remains a major public health problem that needs different comprehensive health strategies to deal with it. Indigenous vegetables, Blackjack in particular, have been shown to possess anti-hypertensive properties that are attributed to bioactive chemical substances such as phytochemicals, fiber, antioxidants as well as micronutrients that include potassium, magnesium, calcium, vitamin C, zinc, iron and copper. The use of indigenous vegetables in combination with the conventional hypertension treatment may reduce hypertensive conditions; hence, the purpose of this study was to determine Blackjack nutritional knowledge and consumption by hypertensive patients. A cross-sectional study employing both quantitative and qualitative methods was conducted on 275 hypertensive participants at Mphambo and Mutale Health Centers, Vhembe District of Limpopo Province, South Africa. A questionnaire was used to collect data on participants’ Blackjack nutritional knowledge, Blackjack availability around their households as well as their Blackjack consumption patterns and nutritional status. The Blackjack nutritional knowledge data was triangulated with focus group discussions and participants’ nutritional status was assessed by anthropometric and dietary intake methods. The body mass index (BMI) was calculated and dietary intake frequency from selected foods was determined. Blood pressure was measured using Microlife automatic blood pressure monitor. The findings indicated that most hypertensive participants had poor knowledge of the nutritional importance of Blackjack and its associated medicinal contribution on hypertension management. Participants were unable to mention different diseases that can be prevented or managed by Blackjack, which was mostly consumed once a week with porridge during the summer season. Hypertensive patients were consuming high amounts of sodium and less amounts of minerals that are known to regulate blood pressure, such as potassium and magnesium. Hypertensive patients had high prevalence of overweight and obesity and most were either in hypertension stage 1 or stage 2. Lack of Blackjack nutritional knowledge may have contributed to a decreased consumption of Blackjack by hypertensive patients. The health professionals should promote the nutritional benefits of Blackjack in rural areas, particularly to hypertensive patients to raise awareness of Blackjack’s benefits in disease prevention and management.
Open Access
Nutrition knowledge of educators in primary schools in Makhuthamaga Municipality in Limpopo Province
(2019-09-20) Magoai, Matlou Martina; Mabapa, N. S.; Mbhenyane, X. G.
Introduction: Nutrition education is the change process whereby beliefs, attitudes, environmental influences, and understanding about food lead to nutrition practices that are scientifically sound, practical, and consistent with individual needs and available resources Design and Methods: The purpose of this study was to assess the nutrition knowledge of educators in Makhuduthamaga municipality, Limpopo Province. Quantitative, descriptive, and exploratory research was conducted to determine the factors that influence the nutrition knowledge of educators and explore the relationship between factors and nutrition knowledge. The simple random sampling technique was employed to select 200 educators in grades 4, 5, and 6. Data collection was done using structured questionnaires. The data was analysed using the statistical package for social science (SPSS), version 21. Results and Discussion: Of the educators who participated in the study, 66.5% were female, and 33.5% were males. Almost all (94%) of the educators were trained at a college and had teaching experience of between 21-30 years. Most of the educators (60.5%) had a diploma, while 0.5% had a master’s degree. Almost one third of educators indicated that children should eat three (3) times during the day, and 32% identified the important meals as breakfast, lunch, and supper. Most (36.5%) failed to give reasons why children should not skip meals. In terms of basic food and nutrition, majority of the educators (75%, 67%, 56%, and 55.5%) responded correctly on the importance of carbohydrates, fat, vegetables, and fruits, respectively. Only a quarter (26%) knew the importance of protein, while 75.5% knew that protein forms part of a balanced diet. Most of the educators knew the rich sources of vitamin A and fibre but did not know the rich sources of iron, iodine, and vitamin C. There was no significant difference between the level of education and nutrition knowledge (p= 0.129), and between training institution and nutrition knowledge (p= 0.534). Conclusion: The need to train educators on nutrition was one of the main recommendations that emanated from many research projects. Most educators mentioned that training and level of education were of the factors that affected their nutrition knowledge. Nutrition knowledge is becoming increasingly important in food choices and in this study educators acknowledged that training affected their nutrition knowledge.