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Item Open Access Agronomic evaluation of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) genotypes in contrasting agro-ecological regions of Limpopo and Mpumalanga Provinces(2020-02-24) Shilenge, Siphiwe Kim; Ogola, J. B. O.; Odindo, A.Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is an important grain legume in the world, ranking second after soybean (Glycine max L.). It accounts for a substantial proportion of human dietary nitrogen intake and plays a crucial role in food security in developing countries. Chickpea can grow in areas with low rainfall and poor soils, and thus may be an important food security crop for smallholder resource-poor farmers in the semi-arid tropics such as the dry environments of the Limpopo and Mpumalanga Provinces of South Africa. Preliminary studies showed the huge potential of chickpea production in these environments. However, no suitable genotypes have been identified and recommended for different agro-ecological zones of Limpopo and Mpumalanga Provinces. Therefore, the objective of this study was to evaluate the performance, and hence, identify the genotypes that are adapted/suitable to the contrasting agro-ecological conditions of Limpopo and Mpumalanga Provinces for production. Field experiments were conducted in the winter cropping seasons of 2016 and 2017 at Thohoyandou (University of Venda experimental station), Syferkuil (University of Limpopo experimental station) and Nelspruit (University of Mpumalanga experimental station). Ten desi chickpea genotypes were sown in a completely randomized block design replicated three times on 10 May 2016 and 10 April 2017 (Thohoyandou), 13 May 2016 and 11 April 2017 (Syferkuil) and 03 May 2016 and 24 May 2017 (Nelspruit). Plant growth characteristics were assessed by determining plant height, crop phenology, number of primary and secondary branches, and canopy cover. Yield and yield components were assessed at harvest after physiological maturity. Carbon dioxide exchange rates (CER) was determined at different growth stages using the InfraRed Gas Analyzer (IRGA). Chlorophyll content (CC) and intercepted radiation were determined weekly using the chlorophyll content meter (CCM-200 PLUS, Opti-Science, Tyngsboro, Massachusetts), and the AccuPAR, LP-80 ceptometer (Deacon Devices Ltd., Pullman, USA), respectively. Genotypes did not vary in CC at Thohoyandou in all seasons, but CC increased with stages of growth. Genotypes varied in the proportion of intercepted radiation (IR) at all measurement dates in Thohoyandou during the 2016 and 2017 growing seasons. The proportion of IR increased with growth stage, reached a peak and declined with plant age. Genotype affected photosynthesis and intercellular CO2 concentration (Ci) but did not have any significant effect on stomatal conductance (gs), transpiration (T) and Leaf Vapour Pressure Deficit (VPDL) during the 2016 season in Thohoyandou. In contrast, genotype did not affect photosynthesis, Ci, gs, T and VPDL in the 2017 season in Thohoyandou. There was no variation among genotypes on number of primary and secondary branches in Thohoyandou in both seasons. Genotypes showed no variation in plant height in the 2016 season in Thohoyandou agro-ecological condition. However, genotypes showed significant variation in plant height at 14, 70 and 84 days after emergence (DAE) in the 2017 cropping season. Moreover, genotypes showed significant variations in days to 50% flowering in Thohoyandou during the 2016 season, but showed no variations in days to 50% emergence and 75% physiological maturity. Genotypes showed no variations in days to 50% emergence, 50% flowering, 50% podding and 75% physiological maturity in the 2017 season in all locations. Genotypes showed significant variation in grain yield in Syferkuil agro-ecological condition, but showed no significant variations on all the other studied traits, while genotypes varied in 100 seed weight (SW) in Thohoyandou, but did not show any variations on the other studied traits during the 2016 season. Moreover, genotypes did not vary for all studied traits in Nelspruit during the 2016 season. The 2016 genotype and environment (G X E) interaction results showed no significant variations. However, results showed G X E interactions during the 2017 growing season suggesting that genotypes responded to environmental variation in a different way. Syferkuil had the greatest grain yield (2811 kg ha-1 and 3122 kg ha-1) in both the 2016 and 2017 growing seasons respectively, as compared to Thohoyandou and Nelspruit. These preliminary findings show that the studied genotypes responded differently in contrasting agro-ecological regions of Limpopo and Mpumalanga Provinces and that Syferkuil might be the best environment for chickpea production in this region due to its cooler temperatures. Of the genotypes evaluated the most promising genotypes are ICCV8101, ICCV3203 and ICCV4110 in these regions in terms of grain yield.Item Open Access An analysis of agricultural commercialisation amongst smallholder farmers in Munyati Resettlement Area, Chikomba District, Zimbabwe(2015-02-06) Muchatozida, Kabiti Hlekani; Raidimi, E. N; Pfumayaramba, T. K.Item Open Access An Analysis of crop farmer's resilience to climate change in the Thulamela Local Municipality of Vhembe District, Limpopo Province, South Africa(2022-11-24) Gwebu, Mashoma Pusheletjo Nairobi; Oluwatayo, I. B.Climate change is a well-known phenomenon, and it affects agriculture negatively. Due to the rising impacts of climate change, this study sought to assess resilience strategies that have been adopted by farmers to mitigate against the effects of climate change in the Thulamela Local Municipality. A mixed research design was used in this study. The simple random sampling techniques was used to select a sample of 180 farmers from a population of 300 registered farmers that used resilient strategies to mitigate the effects of climate change in Thulamela Municipality. Data was collected using structured questionnaires. The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS version 27) was used to analyse the data. The study used descriptive statistics, to analyse the socio-economic characteristics of farmers that have adopted resilience strategies and challenges faced by farmers when adopting the resilience strategies. Furthermore, the principal component analysis model was used to analyse the resilient strategies adopted by farmers and multinomial regression analysis was used to analyse the factors influencing the choice of resilient strategies by farmers. The study found that there are more females than male farmers that use resilient strategies to mitigate the effects of climate change and that farmers with more farming experience adopt better these strategies than those with fewer experience. It was also found that most farmers that participate in using resilient strategies have formal education. The resilient strategies used by farmers were crop diversification, soil conservation practice and crop management, cover crops and rainwater harvesting, fertilizer application and the use of resilient crop varieties. Again, the study revealed that the most common factors influencing the adoption of resilience strategies were educational level, extension support, farming under irrigation, having an income. The result on the challenges that farmers faced while adopting to the resilience strategies indicate that farmers are unable to access credit, they do not have enough agricultural information, they have no proper guidance in using some resilient strategies, they do not have enough water on their farms. The study recommends that extension officers should facilitate networking among farmers, wherein farmers with more farming experience could assist farmers with less experience on the best adoption of resilient strategies Also, there should be mechanisms to assist farmers to adopt resilience strategies even if they are expensive to adopt within their practices.Item Open Access Analysis of factors affecting proper functioning of smallholder agricultural cooperatives in the Lepelelle Nkumpi Municipality, Limpopo Province, South Africa(2016) Thaba, Katlego; Anim, F. D. K.; Pfumayaramba, T. K.Agricultural cooperatives have been generally promoted as a vehicle for smallholder agricultural development in South Africa. As a result, agricultural co-operative registrations in South Africa are increasing. However, research suggests that South African co-operatives have generally not been effective, successful and functional. The study determined factors affecting proper functioning of smallholder agricultural cooperatives in Lepelle Nkumpi Municipality. Simple random sampling method was used to select a sample of 140 active cooperative members from 13 registered agricultural cooperatives. A list of agricultural cooperatives was obtained from the Department of Agriculture, Limpopo Province to facilitate the process. Primary data was collected using designed questionnaires and secondary data was collected from journal articles, internet and other recorded data. All questionnaires were handed out during face to face interviews held with participants. Discriminant analysis was used to analyse the data. The model was used to identify different factors which might have positive or negative effects on the functioning of agricultural cooperatives. The discriminant analysis results revealed that functional smallholder agricultural cooperatives were characterized by high level of training of members; interaction with other stakeholder and satisfaction with the training and assistance received. On the other hand Dysfunctional smallholder agricultural cooperative were characterized by high age group, low level of meeting attendance, large cooperative size, dissatisfaction of assistance and training received and high number of females. The weighting coefficients of the standardized canonical discriminant coefficients of the independent variables showed that variables that discriminated between functional and dysfunctional cooperatives were: cooperative size (-0.852), interaction vi with stakeholders to improve the level of skill (0.579), satisfaction with assistance provided (0.516), number of females in cooperative (-0.455), years in existence of cooperative (0.452), members participation in decision making (0.407) and age group (0.446). The finding obtained in this study could be quite useful to policy makers. This study recommended that government should intensify effort on cooperative training, extension service and assistance to support functioning of agricultural cooperatives in the study area. Cooperative members should also participate in decision making and attend cooperative meetings to acquire more agricultural informationItem Open Access Analysis of the constraints faced by small-scale farmers in achieving household food security a case study of Masholomoshe and Makwe Irrigation Schemes in Gwanda District, Matabeleland South Province(2015-01-30) Ndlovu, Langelihle; Chauke, P. K.; Pfumayaramba, T. K.Item Open Access Assessing beneficiation of black emerging macadamia farmers from the statutory levy for transformation in Vhembe District, Limpopo Province, South Africa(2022-11-23) Mokwite, Basetsana Christine; Oluwatayo, I. B.In 1996, under the Marketing of Agricultural Products Act (MAP Act No. 47 of 1996), the South African government implemented statutory measures in support of the MAP Act’s objective of promoting efficiency in the agricultural sector. In 2018, Macadamia South Africa NPC (SAMAC) were approved for a second term of statutory measures that enable applicable agricultural industries to collect levy funds for the expenditure on crucial generic functions: research, transformation, and information. The transformation function is enacted to fast-track rural development of previously disadvantaged farmers towards their advancing commercialisation by funding their much-needed resources to perform daily farm operations and for human capacity empowerment. With the aim to determine the objective of the MAP Act No. 47 enacted in 1996 is being realized, the study assessed the beneficiation of black emerging macadamia farmers from the transformation programme activities funded by the statutory levies in Vhembe District Municipality. The objectives of the study were to identify and describe the socio-economic characteristics of the farmers investigate factors influencing beneficiation from the transformation programme funded by the statutory levies, evaluate the impact of the transformation programme funded by the statutory levies on beneficiaries’ skills and enterprise development and explore the beneficiaries’ views, and challenges faced by the beneficiaries of the transformation programme funded by the statutory levies. The study was carried out in the Vhembe District Municipality, Limpopo Province where data was collected from 152 black emerging macadamia growers using structured questionnaires. SPSS version 27 and Stata version 14 were used to capture and analyze the data. A binary logistic regression model was used to investigate the influence of socio-economic factors on the beneficiation towards a transformation programme funded by statutory levies. PCA and Tobit regression model was used to evaluate the impact of the transformation programme funded by the statutory levies on farmer’s enterprise and skills development. Analysis of socio-economic factors showed amongst other things, that majority of the respondents were males, with the average age of the respondents being was 56 years having a farm size of 6.38 hectares. Respondents’ farming experience was 11 years, with an average of 11 years of schooling. Farming was the main source of income for most of the beneficiaries and the majority of the respondents had permission to occupy certificates from village chiefs revealing that they own the land. The binary regression model showed that socio-economic factors that influenced beneficiation were the location of the farmers, marital status, years of schooling, agricultural qualification, years of farming and membership association. The PCA and Tobit regression model found that the significant explanatory variables are farming qualification and membership association. The descriptive results of the extent to which the farmers are benefitted from the transformation programme funded by the statutory levies on farmers’ development (skills and enterprise) revealed that most of the farmers (69%) did receive assistance either for enterprise and or skills development activities. In terms of enterprise development over 75% of the respondents indicated that they have been assisted while over 76.3% of them indicated that they have received skills development assistance from the transformation programme. The study established the main constraints that the beneficiaries are facing were lack of machinery and infrastructure, high input costs and theft/mutilation of the macadamia nuts. the beneficiaries’ views of the transformation programme. The beneficiaries of the transformation programme also listed input subsidies, machinery and payment of staff as their major needs. Based on the findings, the study recommends that farmers be encouraged to continue schooling as far as acquiring agricultural qualifications because education could enhance farmers’ farming practices. Also, stakeholders such as agricultural extension officers and transformation managers of the industry bodies to offer the enterprise and skills development activities based on the farmer’s needs, regularly monitor and evaluate the progress of the farmers that benefitted from the programmes and mentor them before assisting more individuals.Item Open Access Assessment of access and use of credit amongst smallholder farmers in the Capricorn District Municipality, of Limpopo Province in South Africa(2013-12-10) Motlhatlhana, Moloko Lovedelia; Chauke, P. K.; Pfumayaramba, T. K.Item Open Access Assessment of antibiotic resistance phenotypic patern in some commensal bacteria isolated from meat and dairy products(2015-02-18) Moyane, Jeremia Ntambama; Jideani, A. I. O.; Aiyegoro, O. A.Item Open Access An assessment of coping strategies in the marketing of produce by street vendors(2015-01-30) Munzhelele, R; Chauke, P. K.; Pfumayaramba, T. K.Item Open Access Assessment of hydro-physical properties of some crusting soils in four different soil form as revealed by micro-focus x-ray computed tomography in Limpopo Province, South Africa(2021-06-23) Mpofu, Khuthadzo Tendani Given; Wakindiki, I. I. C.; Odhiambo, J. J. O.Most of the available knowledge about soil structure degradation through crust formation is limited to two-dimensional geometry. However, soil is a natural three-dimension body. The objective of the study is to assess soil crusting and hydro physical properties in four different soil form by using X-ray Computed Tomography, Characterizing micro-morphometric of crusting soil’s pore system, quantifying soil structure degradation through crusting development and visualizing hydro physical properties in all four-soil form. Micro X-ray Computed Tomography techniques can greatly add value to existing knowledge because they can reveal soil structure in three dimensions (3D). Undisturbed soil aggregates were obtained from two adjacent sampling locations namely Visibly Crusted (VC) and Not-Visibly Crusted (NVC). Four soil forms were studied in Limpopo province, South Africa at Vhembe Region under Thulamela and Collin Chabane local Municipality. Soil form studied are Dundee, located at (Tshamutoro village), Shortlands (Mukula Village), Hutton (University of Venda) and Glenrosa (Ha-Davhana village). The samples were scanned using Nikon XTH 225L micro-focus CT X-ray unit. The scans were reconstructed into three-dimensional volume data set of pore shapes, pore size and porosity among the soils using CT Pro software® and further analysed using VG Studio Max V3.0®. images were acquired after 30 minutes in each scan. The result of the study indicated that total porosity decreases with increase in depth, and the shape of the aggregates were dominated by regular pores that are susceptible to water erosion. Moreover, soil pores inform of mesopores, micropores, and macro pores were recorded using 3D images acquired .By visualizing hydro physical properties using images in 2D and 3D, it was possible to visualize arrangement of aggregates and their sizes helping to understand the erodibility of soil. In conclusion X-ray computed tomography is an effective tool to study the microstructure of soil aggregates.Item Open Access Assessment of the effect of fungicides on powdery mildew development on butternut squash(2016-03-10) Mafa, Maite Sarah; Kunjecu, E. C.; Samie, A.Item Open Access An assessment of the Extent of Small-scale business venturing in Rural areas: A case study of Molemole Local Municipality in Capricorn District of Limpopo Province(2017-09-18) Padi, Mokibelo Deborah; Chauke, P. K.; Maiwashe, A.M.The study was premised on anticipation for the existence of small businesses that `seemed to be widespread within households in the traditional authorities of Molemole local municipality. The observation prompted the researcher to investigate two aspects related to these ventures; how these small-scale businesses and other income generating opportunities impact livelihoods of members of the communities. The study was conducted in rural communities of Molemole Local municipality of Limpopo Province. Data was collected using a structured pre-tested questionnaire from members of the community. Additional data was collected from traditional leaders of the four traditional authorities namely: Machaka, Makgato, Ramokgopa and Manthata through focus group discussions. Multi-stage clustered proportional random sampling technique was used to select the sample for this study of 150 individuals from the four traditional authorities. SPSS computer software was used to analyse data from the structured questionnaires while Likert scale was used to analyse the data collected from the focus group discussion. Descriptive statistics was used to summarize the data while Binary logistics regression model was used to analyse the influence of socio economic factors on the income levels of the respondents (from both businesses and other sources). The findings of the study show that biographic characteristics proved to have a great effect/impact on how rural community members generate their livelihoods (through income generation). Most of the respondents were found to be females, and this had a positive impact on their level of income. Majority of the respondents had secondary education as their highest level of education which caused them to have limited access to external employment. Services rendered by the few small businesses were found to be unsatisfactory by the community members. Traditional leaders stated that it was important for residents in their communities to own businesses as this will provide them with good income and services to the communities. The study concluded that income did improve the livelihoods of community members. Amongst others the study recommended for increased women empowerment, educational opportunities and encouragement to communities to initiate business ventures.Item Open Access Biochar and Poultry Litter Effects on Maize Growth, Nutrient Uptake and Selected Soil Biological Activities in Different Soil Types(2022-07-15) Ntsoane, R. L.; Odhiambo, J. J. O.; Kutu, F. R.; Kutu, F. R.South African soils contain lesser percent organic carbon content compared to soils from many parts of the world. The loss in organic carbon content reduces soil fertility and drives an ever increasing demand for the use of soil amendments to enhance soil fertility. The study consiststed of a greenhouse pot experiment and a laboratory incubation experiment. The objective of a greenhouse study was to assess the effects of biochar and poultry litter application on maiize productivity under different soil types. Treatments consisted of different soil types and amendments of biochar and poultry litter. Soils were collected from four sites (Mutshenzheni, Rambuda, Tshiombo Irrigation and Tshiombo Madzivhandila) representing different soil types (Westleigh (We1), Hutton (Hu), Westleigh(We2) and Shortlands (Sd), respectively. Soils were amended with biochar and poultry litter. The amendments consisted of various mix ratios of biochar (BC) with poultry litter (PL) as treatments, which are namely, BC0PL0, BC100PL0, BC75PL25, BC50PL50, BC25PL75, and BC0PL100. Soil amendments were applied at different rates of 0- 5 t ha-1 PL and 0- 40 t ha-1 BC. Treatments were laid out in a completely randomize design (CRD) and replicated three times. Biochar and poultry litter application exerted no significant difference on soil pH of We2, Sd, and Hu soils. However, the effect of biochar and poultry litter application was significant at soil We1. In contrast, application of biochar and poultry litter had no effect on soil total N of soil We1, We2, and Hu and was significant on soil Sd. The results of this study showed that application of biochar and poultry litter treatments had no significant effect on both the maize growth and nutient uptake at early stages ( Week 1 and Week 2). However, the application of biochar and poultry litter treatments had a significant difference ( p ≥ 0.001) on maize growth and nutrient uptake at a later stage ( Week 3 to Week 6). Therefore, there is a potential to ameliorate fertility constraints in agricultural soils using biochar combined with poultry litter. Though biochar possesses some essential elements required for plant growth, sole application reduces its efficiency with its effectiveness confirmed only when applied in combination with organic-based materials such as poultry litter. The laboratory incubation experiment assessed the effects of different biochar rates on soil chemical and bio-quality parameters. Each treatment consisted of a 200 g of soil (We1, Hu, We2 and Sd) homogenously mixed with biochar amendments (0, 10, 20, and 40, t ha-1). The treatments were laid in a completely randomize design (CRD) and replicated three times. Soil sampling was done on day 0, 30, 60, 90, and 120, and samples were analyzed for soil available P and N and bio-quality parameters namely microbial biomass nitrogen, microbial biomass carbon, urease, alkaline and acid phosphatase, β glucosidase, soil organic carbon, and dehydrogenase activity. The results of the study revealed various responses of soil bio-quality parameters and selected soil chemical properties after biochar and poultry litter application. Thus, the effects of biochar rate, incubation days and soil type on soil enzymes and other bio-quality parameters elicited an understanding on microbial activity and soil enzymes mechanism . Therefore, a prolonged study (more than 120 day) is required to evaluate the effects of incubation days, biochar rate and soil type effect on soil nutrients and bio-quality parameters.Item Open Access Biochar and poultry manure effects on selected soil physical and chemical properties and maize (Zea Mays) in a dry environment(2018-05-18) Musumuvhi, Thabelo; Odhiambo, J. J. O.; Mzezewa, J.Poultry manure (PM) is an inexpensive source of fertilizer but it decomposes quickly and releases carbon and greenhouse gases. Biochar (BC) could be an alternative source of carbon to improve soil quality and reduce greenhouse gas emission. This study investigated the effect of co-application of BC and PM on selected soil physical and chemical properties and performance of maize. A field experiment was conducted at the University of Venda experimental farm during 2015/2016 and 2016/2017 seasons. The experiment was a 4 x 3 factorial arrangement consisting of four rates of BC (0, 5, 10 and 20 t ha-1) and three rates of PM (0, 2, and 4 t ha-1) in a RCBD arrangement replicated three times. Maize was planted in both seasons. After harvest, soil bulk density was determined at four soil depths (0-5, 5-10, 10-15, and 15-20 cm), while aggregate stability and selected soil chemical properties were determined at two soil depths (0-15 cm and 15-30 cm). Data were subjected to ANOVA using Genstat 17th edition. The least significant difference was used to compare the treatment means at P < 0.05. Soil aggregate stability, organic carbon, Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, maize dry matter and maize grain yield increased with increasing rates of BC and PM application at 0 - 15 cm depth in both seasons. The combination of BC at 20 t ha-1 and PM at 4 t ha-1 significantly (P < 0.05) decreased soil bulk density at 5 - 10 cm depth but increased soil available P and total N at the two depths in both seasons. The results of this study suggested that BC and PM improved soil ability to retain and supply nutrients through improved soil aggregate stability and reduced bulk density thereby improving maize dry matter and grain yield. Combining BC with PM proved to enhance the ability of soil to function by improving selected soil physical and chemical properties thereby improving maize dry matter and grain yield.Item Open Access Cassava root (Manihot Esculenta Crantz) characterisation and evaluation of process-induced changes on functional of its flour(2021-06-23) Udoro, Elohor Oghenechavwuko; Jideani, A. I. O.; Anyasi, T. A,Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) is the world’s most important root crop, highly perishable, mostly grown and consumed in the tropics and subtropics of Asia, South America and Africa. Despite the popularity and utilisation of cassava in tropical and sub-tropical regions of Africa, it is not well known in South Africa. In this study, morphological, physicochemical, structural, elemental, and metabolic characterisation was conducted on two South African cassava landraces red (RCLR) and white (WCLR) highlighting their potential end-use properties. Response surface methodology (RSM) was employed in determining the linear, interactive and quadratic effect of varying concentrations of pre-treatment (0.6 – 3.4%w/v) and drying temperature (45 – 74⁰C) on thermal, functional and physicochemical properties of cassava flour (CF) from both landraces. Calcium chloride and citric acid were separately applied in pre-treatment of the flours. Four experimental groups: CF from red landrace pre-treated with citric acid (CAR); CF from red landrace pre-treated with calcium chloride (CCR); CF from white landrace pre-treated with citric acid (CAW); and CF from white landrace pre-treated with calcium chloride (CCW) were comparatively evaluated. In each experimental group, the experimental samples were compared with control samples by One-way ANOVA and separation of means using Duncan Multiple Range Test in SPSS statistics software Version 25 (IBM Corp., New York, USA). Experimental design, analysis, response plots, one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) of model parameters and process optimisation was done with Stat-Ease design expert software (Version 12). Visual assessment of the root parenchyma showed no distinct features as both landraces appeared cream in colour. However, colorimetric analysis revealed that L* (87.42), a* (0.06), b* (14.17), whiteness (89.45) and brownness index (4.15) of WCLR were significantly different (p < 0.05) from the L* (83.30), a* (0.67), b* (16.07), whiteness (86.50) and brownness index (5.17) of RCLR. Peel thickness of the RCLR (2.27 mm) was significantly higher (p < 0.05) than that of WCLR (1.85 mm) while the percentage flour yield of RCLR (36.15) was significantly lower than WCLR (37.03). Flour from the roots showed significant variance (p < 0.05) in a*, b* and brownness index but the lightness and whiteness index were not significantly different (p > 0.05). Cyanide content (RCLR – 3.62 mg/kg; WCLR – 3.51 mg/kg) of the root was not significantly (p > 0.05) different, but the flour (RCLR – 2.92 mg/kg; WCLR – 1.83 mg/kg) was significantly (p < 0.05) different. Cyanide content of the root and flour were below WHO recommended safe consumption level of 10.00 mg/kg. Scanning electron micrographs of both flours showed spherical and truncated starch granules clustered and dispersed in no regular pattern. Pattern and main peaks (2θ = 43⁰, 23⁰, 17⁰ and 15⁰) of X-ray diffractometry spectra of the flours were the same, exhibiting A-type starch crystallinity. Metabolic profiling, with the aid of gas chromatography-mass ii spectrometry, revealed that phenolic acids identified were higher in WCLR than RCLR. A reverse trend was observed with identified FAMEs in the landraces. Of all sugars identified, sucrose had the highest concentration in both landraces. X-ray fluorescence spectrometry of CF revealed that both landraces contained potassium (RCLR - 26.10 mg g−1; WCLR – 30.30 mg g−1), magnesium (RCLR – 23.40 mg g−1; WCLR – 16.80 mg g−1), calcium (RCLR – 11.50 mg g−1; WCLR – 5.60 mg g−1), aluminium (RCLR – 1.50 mg g−1; WCLR – 1.50 mg g−1), phosphorus (RCLR – 0.80 mg g−1; WCLR – 1.50 mg g−1), iron (RCLR – 0.50 mg g−1; WCLR – 0.50 mg g−1), chromium (RCLR – 0.20 mg g−1; WCLR – 0.20 mg g−1), and titanium (RCLR – 0.20 mg g−1; WCLR – 0.20 mg g−1). Differential scanning calorimetry showed that pre-treatment had an increasing effect on the gelatinisation temperatures and enthalpy of CF. Citric acid treatment had a decreasing effect on water holding capacity of CF when compared to calcium chloride. Loose bulk density (LBD) ranged between 0.34 – 0.41 g/cm3 (CAR), 0.37 - 0.45 g/cm3 (CCR), 0.35 – 0.43 g/cm3 (CAW) and 0.37 – 0.44 g/cm3 for CCW respectively. The LBD increased with an increase in DT. Packed bulk density (PBD) of CF treated with calcium chloride and citric acid were similar with the least and highest PBD of 0.62 and 0.73 g/mL respectively. An increase in drying temperature and concentration increased ash content. Calcium chloride and citric acid pre-treatments improved the lightness and whiteness index of CF. The L* values of CF were between 91.37 and 93.65 with the control (not pre-treated) samples significantly lower (p < 0.05) than the experimental samples in all four groups. The study reveals that the pre-treatments have a mitigating effect against enzymatic browning associated with cassava root processing. An increase in thermal properties indicates that the processing conditions confer on CF more stability in the presence of heat and water. Chemical characterisation shows that both landraces are of the sweet type, with low cyanide content which makes them safe for human consumption. The flours contain minerals that are useful for proper body function and metabolism. The A-type starch crystallinity of flour exhibited, positions the flours as a suitable wheat replacement in flour-based food applications. Therefore, the roots of these landraces can be processed into minimally processed foods such as chips. The flours can be utilised in food applications such as baked products, gels and stabilisers.Item Open Access Chemical and tannin composition of browsable species used as ruminant feed supplements in the Vhembe District of South Africa(2013-02-25) Mahlako, Kgabo Tryphina; Baloyi, J. J.; Benyi, K.;Item Open Access Chemical composition, rumen degradability and post ruminal digestibility of selected soya bean (Glycine Max) cultivars harvested at different growth stages(2020-08-11) Mukosi, Rendani; Baloyi. J. J.; Fushai, F.Soya bean (Glycine max) is a legume that is mostly cultivated for food grain which can be used as high-protein forage for grazing, haying or ensiling. The use of forage soya bean by small holder farmers is currently very limited. The objective of the current study was to evaluate the nutritive value of three trifoliate forage Soya bean cultivars (Locally denoted as 4-LF, PAN, and TGX). The study was carried out at the University of Venda where the soya beans were planted in 63 25L pots (21 pots for each cultivar) which were randomly placed on the floor of an open, wire-net protected house. Forage harvested at three growth stages (pre-anthesis, anthesis and postanthesis). Samples of the forage were analyzed for dry matter (DM), ash, crude protein (CP), neutral detergent fiber (NDF), acid detergent fiber (ADF) micro and macro minerals. Ruminal DM and CP degradability were evaluated in situ by incubation of samples within nylon bags (external dimension: 6 × 12 cm, pore size of 46 μm) in the rumen of three Bonsmara steers for 0, 6, 12, 16, 24, 48, 72, and 96 hours. Estimates of rapidly degradable fraction “a”, slowly degradable fraction “b”, constant outflow rate ‘c’ and the DM or CP degradability (p) at time (t) were estimated by fitting the degradability data into the exponential equation P = a + b (1 - e-ct) using the NEWAY computer programme. Parameters were subjected to ANOVA for a 3 X 3 factorial treatment arrangement using the General Linear Model procedures of MINITAB software (version 17 of 2014). Effective degradability ED) was estimated asED = a + bc at fractional outflow rates of k= (k +c) 2%, 5% and 8%. In vitro enzymatic DM and CP digestibility of rumen undegradable residues collected after 24 and 48-hour incubation was determined by simulating sequential gastro-small intestinal digestion. Cultivar PAN harvested post anthesis had significantly higher (p< 0.05) CP than other cultivars. The CP content increased with growth stage. Cultivar 4LF harvested preanthesis had significantly highest (p< 0.05) NDF. The cultivar had no significant effect (p> 0.05) on DM, ash, CP, NDF, ADF and minerals. Cultivar PAN harvested pre-anthesis had significantly highest (p< 0.05) Mg. The harvest stage significantly affected (p< 0.05) mineral content other than (p> 0.05) Zn and Cu. Cultivar TGX harvested pre-anthesis had significantly highest (p< 0.05) effective degradability of dry matter at k=0.08. Fraction ‘c’ and ED at k= 0.08 were lower (p> 0.05) in cultivar * growth stage interaction in dry matter degradability. Fraction ‘a’ for CP was highest (p< 0.05) for cultivar TGX harvested post-anthesis. Fraction ‘c’ was lower (p> 0.05) for cultivar 4LF harvested at anthesis stage. There was a significant effect (p< 0.05) on crude protein soluble fraction ‘c’ and effective degradability k=0.08 in cultivar and growth stage interaction. There was no significant interaction (p> 0.05) of the cultivar X growth stage on crude protein degradability at 48 hours, IVCPD at 24 and 48 hours with significant effect on crude protein degradation at 24 hours caused by cultivar TGX at pre-anthesis growth stage. In conclusion, growth stage increases the chemical composition of soya bean but does not affect digestibility.Item Open Access Chemical composition, ruminal degradability and in vitro digestibility of dry matter and crude protein of dichrostachys cinerea and bauhinia thonningii leaves.(2018-05-18) Mahwasane, Mulalo Birgit; Baloyi, J. J.; Fushai, F.; Mahlako, K. T.Forage and browse legumes play an important role in sustaining livestock in small holder farming systems in the tropics, mainly as a result of their contribution to economic and environmental sustainability of livestock production. The study was conducted to determine the chemical composition, ruminal degradability and in vitro digestibility of dry matter (DM) and crude protein (CP) of Dichrostachys cinerea and Bauhinia thonningii leaves. The browse tree leaves were harvested in the wild in Shayandima, Limpopo province. The leaves were collected, oven-dried, milled to pass through a 1.0 mm sieve and analysed for chemical composition in the Animal Science Nutrition Laboratory, at the University of Venda. The browse tree leaves were analysed for DM nitrogen, neutral detergent fibre (NDF) and acid detergent fibre (ADF). Approximately 5 g of leaf sample milled to pass through through a 1 mm sieve were placed in nylon bags (external dimension: 6 × 12 cm, pore size of 41 μm) and incubated in duplicates for 0, 4, 8, 16, 24, 48, 72, 96 and 120 hours periods in the rumen of three cannulated Bonsmara steers. The residues were then analysed for DM and nitrogen. Parameters to describe the dynamics of ruminal degradability of DM and CP were obtained by fitting the data on the exponential equation P = a + b (1 - e-ct) using NEWAY computer program, where “a” is the rapid degradable fraction, “b” is the slow degradable fraction and “c” is the outflow rate. The in vitro DM and CP degradability of rumen undegradable residue collected after 24 and 48 hour incubation was determined by sequential in vitro digestion in pepsin (abomasal) and pancreatin (small intestine) solutions. DM and CP content differed significantly (P ˂ 0.05). D. cinerea leaves had higher levels of DM and CP content than B. thonningii leaves. DM and CP disappearance increased (P < 0.01) as the incubation period increased. There was no difference (P > 0.05) in soluble fraction ‘a’ and ‘b’ of DM of the two species. The CP components for both fraction ‘a’ and ‘b’ differed significantly (P < 0.01) for CP among the two species. There was significant difference (P < 0.01) in post-ruminal digestibility among the two species. CP digestibility of B. thonningii and D. cinerea leaves was reduced (P < 0.01). In conclusion, B. thonningii and D. cinerea leaves showed significant difference based on their fermentation kinetics and in vitro digestibility, suggesting a good nutritional quality which can be used as protein source for ruminants in dry season and supplement to low-quality diets.Item Open Access Chemical composition, ruminal degradability and in-vitro post ruminal digestibility of ficus polita and ficus benjamina leaves(2021-06-23) Mufamadi, Thakhani; Fushai, F.; Mikasi, M. S.The aim of the study was to evaluate the chemical composition, rumen degradability and in-vitro ileal digestibility of dry matter (DM) and nitrogen (N) in Ficus polita and Ficus benjamina leaves for optimum utilisation as supplementary protein sources for ruminant livestock. Leaves from Ficus polita and Ficus benjamina were harvested in late summer and in winter from one site within Tshakhuma, Limpopo province, South Africa. Five trees from each species were selected as they randomly occurred along an approximately linear transect of 1 km extending from west to east direction. The leaves were air-dried, milled through a 1 mm screen and analyzed for dry matter (DM), ash, N, neutral detergent fibre (NDF), acid detergent lignin (ADL), acid detergent fibre (ADF) and acid detergent insoluble Nitrogen (ADIN). The DM and N degradability were estimated using approximately 5 g leaf samples which were milled through a 1 mm screen and incubated in duplicate in nylon bags (external dimension: 6 × 12 cm, pore size of 46 μm) inside the rumen of three cannulated Bonsmara steers for 0, 4, 8,16, 24, 48, 72 and 96 hour periods. Parameters to describe the dynamics of ruminal degradability of DM and CP were obtained by fitting the data on the exponential equation P = a + b (1 - e-ct) using the NEWAY computer program, where “p” is the DM and CP disappearance at time t, (potential degradation), “a” is the rapidly degradable fraction, “b” is the slowly degradable fraction, “c” is the degradability rate of the “b” fraction and “t” is the degradation time. Post-ruminal in vitro DM and CP digestibility of the rumen undegradable residues were determined by the pepsin-pancreatin (gastric-small intestinal) digestion procedure. Data was subjected to analysis of variance in a 2 (season) x 2 (species) factorial treatment layout. Interaction between the season and species was significant (P<0.01) for Ash, CP, ADF, ADL with the ADF and ADL significantly higher (P<0.01) in winter compared to harvested F. polita leaves. For DM, there was a significantly difference for “b” and for the ED at all outflow rates (P<0.01) in both species, and for “a+b” (P<0.05). The insoluble degradable DM fraction ‘b’ were higher in F. polita than in F. benjamina in both dry and wet seasons. The CP disappearance components ‘a’ and ‘b’ differed significantly (P < 0.01) among the two species. Ficus polita leaves had significantly higher CP digestibility at 24-hr and 48-hr than F. benjamina leaves at 24- and 48-h of rumen incubation in both harvest seasons. It can be concluded that species and season affected the chemical composition, in-situ degradability of DM and CP, and in vitro post ruminal digestibility of the Ficus browse species, with the degradable DM and CP for both species adequate to serve as protein supplements to low-quality ruminant feeds.Item Open Access Chickpea nitrogen fixation, rhizosphere nutrient concentration and contribution of residual nitrogen to improve maize production in response to biochar application in three different soil types(2022-07-15) Lusiba, Siphiwe Gloria; Odhiambo, J. J O.; Adeleke, R.; Maseko, S. T.Soil degradation is a major challenge affecting agricultural production around the world in the twenty-first century. Alternative approaches including the use of biochar and the introduction of legumes that will fix nitrogen though the process of biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) are essential for improving soil quality of current low productive soils, thus increasing crop yields, and maintaining food security while conserving the environment. To address this problem, three experiments were conducted in this study. First, two locally produced biochar from poultry litter and acacia feedstocks were assessed whether they qualify as ‘biochar’ for use as soil amendment according to the international biochar bodies. Secondly, a pot experiment was then conducted to investigate the potential impact of poultry litter biochar (PLB) and acacia biochar (ACB) to improve rhizospheric soil nutrient availability, bacteria abundance and diversity, chickpea growth and total nitrogen fixation in three contrasting soil types. Thirdly, another pot experiment was conducted to determine the contribution of residual N from biochar and N-fixed by chickpea to the following maize crop grown in three contrasting soil type. The treatments consisted of three soil types classified as Fernwood [Arenosol]; Pinedene [Gleyic Acrisol]; Griffin [Helvic Acrisol], sampled from three different smallholder farmers at Dopeni village, Limpopo Province. The two biochars [PLB and ACB] were applied at four application rates of [0% (control), 0.5, 1 and 2% w/w]. The treatments were arranged in a completely randomized design and replicated four times. For the first experiment, chickpea (Cicer arietinum) desi cultivar was inoculated and grown for 65 days in soils with uniformly applied P at 60 kg P/kg in all pots and water maintained at 60% field capacity. For the second experiment, maize (Zea mays) was grown for 95 days in the same soil as chickpea and biochar treatments as well as after harvesting maize that was used as a reference crop. Biochars made from poultry litter and acacia feedstocks meet the International Biochar Initiative (IBI) and European Biochar Certificate (EBC) requirements and qualifies as biochar for use as a soil amendment. Both biochars had C content greater than 50%, with H/C and O/C ratios less than 0.6 and 0.4, respectively, indicating that both biochars are stable for C sequestration and can remain in the soil for about 1000 years. Because poultry litter biochar (PLB) contained more nutrients than acacia biochar (ACB), PLB improved rhizospheric pH, CEC, and nutrient concentration (N, P, K, and Ca) when applied at 0.5-2% in the Griffin and Pinedene soils, resulting in higher biomass production and nutrient uptake of chickpea. In addition, when 2% PLB was applied to those two soils, bacteria capable of fixing N, especially those from the phylum Proteobacteria, were more abundant. Thus, chickpea grown in these soils and at these PLB rates derived more N from the atmosphere, fixed more N, and xvi accumulated more N and C in the shoot, but was less water use efficient. Furthermore, maize grown in 1% residual PLB treatments produced more biomass and accumulated more N and other nutrients than maize grown with 0.5-2% residual ACB treatments. However, when grown after chickpea harvest in residual PLB treatments of 2% in the Griffin and Pinedene soils, maize produced greater biomass and accumulated more N and other nutrients. Application of PLB and ACB at 0.5% in the Fernwood soil was ideal to improve rhizospheric nutrient availability, the abundance of bacteria communities [from the phylum Proteobacteria, Acidobacteria, and Firmicutes which are important for C and N cycling and bioremediation], as well as growth, BNF, and C accumulation of chickpea, including maize growth and nutrient uptake in monocropping or in rotation with chickpea. The greatest variation in relative abundance of bacteria communities and growth of chickpea was due to the substantial change in soil pH and rhizospheric nutrient availability such as N, P, K, and Mg, while biomass production and N accumulation were largely attributed to the improved BNF and C accumulation of chickpea in the clay textured soils. The increased growth and nutrient uptake of the following maize crop in the Griffin and Pinedene soils was attributed to high N inputs through BNF and biochar mineralisation, whereas the variation in bacteria communities, chickpea and maize performance in the Fernwood soil was due to the change in rhizospheric soil pH, P, and K. The findings of this study conclude that biochar made from poultry litter is recommended for use as a soil amendment to improve nutrients and soil quality, although caution should be taken when applied at higher rates (40 t/ha) as it may immobilize N or result in high release of toxic elements. Furthermore, incorporating chickpea into existing maize cropping systems of smallholder farmers and using biochar made from poultry litter will help reduce nitrogen input costs by adding residual nitrogen from biochar mineralisation and through BNF, improving soil quality and maize production. On the other hand, biochar made from acacia feedstock will be excellent for use to improve soil organic carbon and water adsorption, but it should be applied months before planting or supplemented with high organic N and P materials when used as a soil amendment to improve nutrient availability, as it may temporary fix N and P in the soil. When using poultry litter or acacia biochar on a poorly buffered loamy sand soil like the Fernwood, care should be taken to avoid over liming, which can cause nutrient deficiency and negatively affect nutrient uptake. Moreover, to improve chickpea and maize performance in sandy textured, highly leached soils like the Fernwood, biochar should be applied regularly or combined with organic materials to improve soil organic carbon to allow the soil to retain and release nutrients for plant uptake.